NNALS 


CPTHe 


oMrs. 


<        ,     /'■^ 


F-^-'-v 


(ui/, 


H'y^ 


ANNALS 


OF  THE 


CHURCH   OF  CHRIST 


FROM    THE    BEGINNING    TO    THE    PRESENT   TIME 


WITH    A    GLANCE    AT   THE 


CHURCHES   IN    AMERICA 


BY 


Mrs.  E.  B.  W.  Phelps 


CINCINNATI 

TH  E  J .   F .   SHUMATE  COMPANY 
1885 


ui- 


Copyright  by 
The  J.  F.  Shumate  Co. 
1885. 


THIS  VOLUME 


"  ^kctc^cE  of  €f)uvci)  MBtov^  " 

IS  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED 
TO 

HON.  ISAAC  M.  JORDAN. 
Cli/ton,July  s,  1SS5. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/annalsofchurchofOOpheliala 


'(©EorioiiB  f^itj9«  of  t^et  &V6  epokci}, 

2ion,  df5  of  otir  ©oS  ; 
S>e  va{)0&i  tDorD  caij  i^of  6c  Broken, 

J^omjcD  ttjei  for  ^is  oton  oBoSc ; 
©n  fRc  ^Rock  of  ^gcB  founScS, 

tP^at  coj^  B^akc  t^^  sure  repose? 
tBif^  eaft>afiotj's  xoaiie  surroiinSe?, 

9E§ou  majst  snjife  of  off  f§g  foes." 


PREFACE. 

The  author  of  the  Annals  or  Sketches  of  the  Church 
has  through  a  long  life  felt  a  deep  and  abiding  interest 
in  all  that  concerns  the  history  of  the  people  of  God 
whom  we  call  the  Holy  Catholic  Church.  A  few  mo- 
ments of  leisure  taken  from  each  day  of  a  busy  life,  has 
for  a  decade  of  years  been  employed  in  the  collection 
oi  facts  relating  to  the  Church.  The  period  of  time 
that  our  record  embraces,  begins  when  the  disciples 
bade  adieu  to  their  Lord  on  Mount  Olivet,  and  con- 
tinues to  trace  the  outline  of  remarkable  or  interesting 
epochs  to  the  present  hour.  It  is  a  popular  history 
for  young  and  old,  and  is  abridged  chiefly  from  the 
works  of  Dean  Milman.  We  are  also  indebted  to  the 
histories  ot  Mosheim  and  Gibbon  and  to  the  later 
ecclesiastical  literature  of  Southey,  Schafif,  Froude, 
Green,  etc.  We  know  that  many  noble  church  histo- 
ries are  in  existence,  but  they  are  very  elaborate  and 
are  but  little  read  except  by  students  of  divinity.  Our 
book  is  succinct  and  simple,  but  contains  many  inter- 
esting facts  that  intelligent  Christians  ought  to  know. 
We  have  tried  to  state  the  facts  that  have  been  handed 
down  to  us  from  age  to  age,  without  garbling.  When 
the  Roman  soldiers  looked  upon  the  coat  of  our  cruci- 
fied Lord,  they  said,  "  Let  us  not  rend  it;"  so  would 
we  present,  without  the  touch  of  passion  or  prejudice, 
the  varied  events  we  have  contemplated.  But  alas  the 
6  3 


lO  PREFACE. 

tissue  of  Church  history,  is  not  a  seamless  robe,  with- 
out spot  or  wrinkle:  it  is  full  of  incongruities.  Clouds 
and  shadows  intervene,  but  there  is  a  light  shining 
through  the  mist,  that  reveals  a  "little  flock"  who 
have,  in  every  age,  served  God  acceptably.  With  a 
heart  full  of  love,  we  have  found  it  difficult  to  portray 
dispassionately  all  the  aspects  of  this  many-sided 
subject.  We  have  tried  to  educe  the  truth  by  looking 
at  the  Past  in  the  light  of  the  Present.  Though  the 
manners  and  sentiments  of  the  human  actors,  in  the 
last  eighteen  centuries,  have  undergone  many  changes, 
yet  they  have  contended  in  every  age  with  like  pas- 
sions and  with  similar  motives  as  ourselves.  May  the 
readers  of  the  following  pages  derive  as  much  inter- 
est in  reading  them  as  the  author  has  experienced  in 
collating  them. 

"  Dihi  as  the  borrowed  beams  of  moon  and  stars 
To  lonely,  weary,  wandering  travelers, 
Is  reason  to  the  soul.     And  as  on  high, 
Those  rolling  fires  discover  but  the  sky, 
Not  light  us  here  ;  so  reason's  glimmering  ray. 
Was  lent  not  to  assure  our  doubtful  way, 
But  guide  us  upward  to  a  better  day." 

—Mrs.  E.  W.  B.  Phelps. 
Clifton,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  February  i,  1880. 


INTRODUCTION.  I  I 

INTRODUCTION. 

"  The  gates  of   Hell  shall  never  prevail  against  it." 

Nearly  nineteen  centuries  have  passed  away  since 
Jesus,  the  Divine  Founder  of  our  rehgion,  uttered  this 
saying,  with  regard  to  the  Church.  These  words  were 
addressed  to  Peter  and  to  the  rest  of  the  disciples, 
when  He  was  alone  with  them.  These  men  were 
timid  and  doubting,  unlearned  in  the  wisdom  of  the 
world.  Our  Lord  lived  not  in  an  age  of  darkness  and 
ignorance,  but  in  the  famous  Augustan  age,  renowned 
for  learning  and  letters.  But,  he  was  the  carpenter's 
son  from  an  unimportant  city  of  Galilee,  and  his  disci- 
ples, men  of  humble  occupation,  fishermen  and  tax- 
gatherers.  How  knoweth  this  man  letters  ?  was  the 
question  asked  by  one,  who  knew  his  humble  origin, 
and  yet  heard  Him  speak  "as  never  man  spake." 
Humble  and  apparently  helpless  as  these  disciples  of 
Jesus  were,  they  did  batter  down  the  strongholds  of 
Pagan  superstion  ;  they  did  overcome  Jewish  prejudice, 
and  they  subdued  spiritual  wickedness  in  high  places. 
Before  that  generation  had  passed  away,  disciples  of 
the  crucified  one  were  found  among  the  members  of 
Caesar's  household.  These  things  were  accomplished 
not  with  human  weapons,  but  with  the  sword  of  the 
Spirit,  the  Word  of  God.  The  stone  that  the  prophet 
saw,  centuries  before  our  Lord  came  into  this  world, 
cut  out  of  a  mountain,  without  hands,  has  filled  the 
earth. 

"It  is  not  assumed  that  the   Church  is  a  perfect 
institution,  represented  as  it  is  by  fallible,  erring  men. 


12  INTRODUCTION.  " 

but  it  is  "the  pillar  and  ground  of  Truth,"  overlaid 
with  many  of  the  devices  of  man.  In  the  wear  and 
tear  of  ages  "The  City  of  God  "  has  been  soiled  and 
defaced  by  pride  and  ambition — the  citizens  of  the  new 
Jerusalem,  like  those  of  the  old,  have  not  all  been  true 
or  obedient  to  the  commands  of  their  founder,  but  have 
sometimes  aspired  to  be  lords  over  God's  heritage,  and 
have  starved  and  misled  the  flock  they  were  com- 
manded to  feed  and  guide.  It  is  granted  that  in  the 
successive  ages  of  its  long  life,  the  light  of  the  Gospel 
has  sometimes  shone  feebly.  It  shone  as  the  sun 
shines  through  a  mist,  but  it  was  still  the  glorious  light 
of  God,  behind  a  cloud.  "The  influx  of  wealth  when 
the  church  was  about  three  centuries  old ;  the  barbar- 
ism of  the  dark  ages ;  the  intellectualism  that  preferred 
debate  to  brotherhood,  and  some  grievous  errors  in 
matters  of  faith,  have  infected  the  Church,  and  cast 
shadows  upon  the  Tabernacle  of  God  ;  yet  the  Shechinah 
is  the  light  of  Heaven,  and  can  never  be  extinguished." 
' '  The  Church, ' '  says  Macaulay, '  *  has  often  been  com- 
pared by  divines  to  the  Ark,  but  never  was  the  resem- 
blance more  perfect  than  during  that  evil  time  when  she 
rode  alone  through  darkness  and  tempest  on  the  deluge, 
beneath  which  all  the  great  works  of  power  and  wisdom 
lay  entombed,  bearing  within  her  that  (apparently)  fee- 
ble germ  from  which  a  second  and  more  glorious  civili- 
zation was  to  spring."  The  Church  is  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant,  as  it  has  brought  down  to  us  unimpaired, 
not  tables  of  stone,  but  the  Oracles  of  God  as  revealed 
to  us  in  the  New  Testament.  It  is  painful  to  read 
many  chapters  in  the  history  of  the  Visible  Church,  but 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  the  middle  ages  there 
was  a  world  within  the  Church,  and  all  the  righteous 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

acts  committed  in  Christendom  have  been  charged  to  it 
by  succeeding  generations.  The  Popes  and  other 
prelates,  by  unjust  usurpations  and  unrighteous  perse- 
cution, beHeving  that  orthodoxy  and  not  Christian 
love  was  the  test  of  discipleship,  have  inflicted  grievous 
wounds  upon  Christ's  body — the  Church.  But  it  must 
be  acknowledged  that  the  power  of  the  Pope  in  the 
dark  times  of  war  and  violence  was  often  exerted  as  a 
defense  and  protection  to  the  people  against  the  tyranny 
of  despots  not  so  powerful  as  themselves.  The  history 
of  the  invisible  church  has  never  been  written.  How 
many  millions  of  private  Christians  have  been  united  to 
Christ,  as  the  branches  abide  in  the  vine,  rich  clusters 
of  beauty  and  fragrance,  but  whose  names  have  never 
been  inscribed  on  any  page  in  this  world's  history.  In 
that  day  when  small  and  great  stand  before  God,  their 
names  shall  be  written  in  the  Lamb's  Book  of  Life. 
How  would  the  love  and  devotion  to  the  cause  of  truth, 
that  burned  in  so  many  hearts  from  the  time  of  John 
Wyclifife  to  the  Reformation,  have  been  made  known 
to  the  world,  except  by  the  persecutions  that  then 
arose  ?  We  should  never  have  heard  of  the  humble  Monk, 
who  assisted  the  great  Luther,  in  the  Augustinian  Con- 
vent, in  comprehending  the  great  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  Faith,  when  reading  together  the  New  Testa- 
ment. These  things  convince  us  that  amid  all  the 
darkness  and  corruption  of  the  Middle  Ages  there  was 
still  a  little  flock  within  the  visible  Church,  who  cried 
day  and  night  "to  him  who  sitteth  upon  the  throne." 
It  is  not  only  within  the  Church  that  the  moral 
power  of  Christianity  is  felt,  but  the  influence  of  its 
spirit  has  moulded  the  thoughts  and  opinions  of  the 
whole  civilized  world — "the  leaven  of  Christianity  has 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

silently  worked  upon  masses  of  men,  breaking  down 
its  great  social  evils."  There  are  many,  alas,  who 
"live  without  God  in  the  world,"  trusting  to  their  own 
strength,  and  refusing  to  recognize  the  good  that  is  in 
them  as  the  result  of  a  Christian  education,  or  the 
reflected  Christian  influence  of  those  about  them.  The 
author  of  Ecce  Homo  has  well  replied  to  those  who  say 
that  "The  Church"  is  a  failure.  Ecce  Homo.  "If 
the  object  of  civil  society  be  the  security  of  life  and 
property,  and  increase  of  prosperity  through  the  divi- 
sion of  labor,  civil  society  is  not  a  success.  Men  are 
robbed  and  murdered;  whole  classes  live  in  pauperism,- 
insecurity,  slavery.  A  sufficient  reason  for  dissatisfac- 
tion, a  good  ground  for  complaint — but  not  a  sufficient 
reason  for  dissolving  civil  society  and  relapsing  into  the 
normal  state."  In  like  manner  if  the  Church  fails  to 
do  her  whole  duty,  let  us  strive  to  quicken  her  ener- 
gies, to  rouse  her  sense  of  responsibility,  through  all 
her  ramifications,  for  we  can  ill  afford  to  sever  the 
strongest  and  most  sacred  tie  that  binds  men  to  each 
other.  How  would  the  moral  pulse  of  this  great  world 
stand  still,  if  the  prayers  of  unnumbered  hearts  did  not 
daily  ascend  like  incense  to  the  skies,  and  if  the  hfe- 
giving  truths  that  issue  from  all  this  pulpits  in  the  land 
did  not  give  strength  to  the  weak,  direction  to  the 
strong,  and  comfort  and  rest  to  the  weary !  To  whom 
should  we  have  recourse  in  all  our  mental  and  spiritual 
conflicts,  but  to  those  whom  Christ  has  appointed  to 
teach  all  nations  ?  Who  shall  strike  the  rock  in  the 
parched  wilderness  of  this  world,  causing  waters  of  re- 
freshment to  flow,  or  who  shall  feed  the  hungry  soul, 
if  the  manna  of  the  Word  of  God,  dispensed  by  the 
Church,  be  withdrawn  ? 


INTRODUCTION.  1 5 

When  our  short  Hfe  is  ebbing,  who  shall  cheerfully 
point  to  a  better  inheritance  on  high,  if  the  voice  of 
the  preacher  be  hushed  ?  The  promise  of  Christ  is 
with  his  people:  "Wherever  two  or  three  are  gath- 
ered together  in  my  name,  there  am  I  in  the  midst  of 
them.''  The  promise  of  Christ  is  with  his  faithful 
ministers,  the  successors  of  those  who  gazed  upon  their 
Lord,  as  he  ascended  from  the  Mount  of  Olives  :  "  Lo 
I  am  with  you  alway,  even  unto  the  end  of  the  world." 

"  The  church  must  stand  acknowledged, 
While  the  world  shall  stand, 
The  most  effectual  guard, 
Support  and  ornament  of  virtue's  cause." 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  I. 

♦'  When  Thou  hadst  overcome  the  sharpness  of  death,  Thou  didst 
open  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  all  believers." 

The  first  Church  of  Christ  was  assembled  in  an 
upper  room  at  Jerusalem  ;  perhaps  it  was  an  upper 
room  in  the  Temple,  but  the  exact  location  is  not 
important.  The  disciples  of  Jesus  were  there ;  their 
names  were  about  an  hundred  and  twenty.  Peter,  and 
James,  and  John  were  there,  and  Andrew,  and  Philip ; 
Thomas,  Bartholomew  or  Nathanael,  Matthew,  and  James 
the  son  of  Alpheus,  and  Simon  Zelotes,  and  Judas  the 
brother  of  James.  The  women  were  there,  who  had 
ministered  to  the  Lord  of  their  substance ;  they  who 
had  stood  by  His  cross,  and  who  had  visited  His 
sepulchre.  These,  with  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus,  had 
now  assembled  with  "His  brethren"  with  one  accord 
in  prayer  and  supplication.  The  last  words  that  our 
Lord  had  uttered  in  their  hearing  were  still  sounding  in 
their  ears,  like  heavenly  music.  The  words  were  new, 
but  they  were  spoken  with  authority :    "  Go  ye  into  all 

(17) 


1 8  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  world,  and  preach  the  gospel  to  every  creature ; 
baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the 
Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  teaching  them  to  observe 
all  things  whatsoever  I  have  commanded  you  ;  and  lo, 
I  am  with  you  alway,  even  unto  the  end  of  the  world." 
He  commanded  that  repentance  and  remission  of  sins 
should  be  preached  in  His  name  among  all  nations, 
beginning  at  Jerusalem. 

How  full  of  solemn  grandeur  must  have  been  the 
feelings  of  this  little  company  of  believers,  as  they 
remembered  the  parting  words  of  their  Lord  and 
Master  !  The  command  to  preach,  and  baptize,  and 
organize,  was  doubtless  intended  specially  for  the  eleven 
apostles ;  but  the  words  that  follow  were  intended  for 
all  and  every  one  in  that  company,  and  for  all  believers 
in  every  age  and  nation.  "Ye  shall  be  witnesses  unto 
me,  both  in  Jerusalem,  and  in  all  Judea,  and  in  Samaria, 
and  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth."  The  Master 
had  left  them,  "  a  cloud  had  received  Him  out  of  their 
sight;  "  yet  they  were  full  of  courage.  Peter,  who  had 
been  so  timid,  now  stood  up  in  the  midst  of  the  disciples 
and,  after  comforting  them  with  the  fulfillment  of 
prophecy,  declared  that  one  must  be  ordained  in  the 
place  of  Judas,  to  be  a  witness  with  them  of  the 
resurrection  of  their  Loni.  Matthias  was  appointed, 
and  numbered  with  the  eleven  apostles. 

Ten  days  after  this  time,  when  the  day  of  Pentecost 
had  fully  come,  they  were,  with  all,  with  one  accord  in 
one  place.  They  were  baptized  with  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  began  to  speak  with  other  tongues  as  the  Spirit 
gave  them  utterance.  This  great  miracle  was  quickly 
noised  abroad,  and  a  vast  multitude  was  gathered  — 
"devout  men  out  of  every  nation  under  heaven  "  were 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        I9 

then  dwelling  at  Jerusalem.  All  were  amazed  at  this 
wonderful  gift  of  tongues,  and  some  doubted  as  to  the 
source  of  the  inspiration.  Some  unbelieving  mockers 
cried  out:  "These  men  are  filled  with  new  wine." 
Peter  lifted  up  his  voice  and  addressed  the  assembly, 
explaining  to  them  that  this  outpouring  of  the  Spirit 
was  in  fulfillment  of  prophecy.  He  called  upon  them 
to  repent  of  their  sins,  and  to  be  baptized,  every  one  in 
the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  for  the  remission  of  sins,  and 
they  should  receive  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  So 
effective  was  this  sermon  of  Peter,  together  with  the 
influence  of  the  miracle,  that  three  thousand  on  the 
same  day  were  added  to  the  band  of  Christian  believers. 
About  this  time  Peter  and  John,  who  continued  to 
observe  the  regular  hours  of  Jewish  worship,  went  up 
to  the  Temple  to  pray.  They  there,  at  the  gate  of  the 
Temple,  performed  in  the  name  of  Jesus  a  great  miracle, 
which  attracted  much  attention.  It  excited  much  jealousy 
in  the  high-priest  Annas,  and  in  all  the  hierarchy  who 
were  at  Jerusalem.  This  miracle  of  Peter  and  John  is 
recorded  in  the  third  chapter  of  the  Acts.  The  apostles 
were  required  to  stand  before  a  council  composed  of 
rulers,  elders,  and  scribes,  to  give  an  account  of  "the 
good  deed  done  to  the  impotent  man."  Peter  then 
proclaimed  boldly  that  the  miracle  was  performed  by 
the  power  of  Jesus  Christ,  whom  they  had  crucified  and 
slain  —  declaring  that  :  ' '  This  is  the  stone  which  was  set 
at  naught  hy  you  builders,  which  is  become  the  head  of 
the  corner  ;  neither  is  there  salvation  in  any  other ;  for 
there  is  none  other  name  under  heaven  given  among 
men  whereby  we  must  be  saved."  The  boldness  of 
Peter  and  John,  and  their  unlearned  simplicity,  greatly 
surprised  the    Jewish   council.     They-,   after  they  had 


20  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

held  a  conference  together,  called  in  the  "unlearned, 
ignorant  men,"  and  commanded  them  not  to  speak  at 
all,  or  teach  in  the  name  of  Jesus.  Peter  and  John 
replied  to  the  proud  rulers  as  men  must  reply  who 
knew  in  their  inmost  hearts  that  they  had  a  commission 
to  execute,  given  them  by  their  Lord  and  Master. 
The  apostles  returned  to  their  company,  and  reported 
all  that  the  chief  priests  and  elders  had  said  unto  them. 
They  lifted  their  voices  in  joyful  accord  to  God,  saying: 
"  Why  do  the  heathen  rage,  and  the  people  imagine  a 
vain  thing?"  The  apostles  continued  to  preach  and 
work  many  signs  and  wonders,  and  the  people  magnified 
them,  but  the  high-priest  and  many  of  the  Sadducees 
were  filled  with  indignation,  "and  laid  their  hands  on 
the  apostles  and  put  them  in  the  common  prison."  But 
the  angel  of  the  Lord  opened  the  prison  doors,  and 
' '  commanded  them  to  stand  and  speak  in  the  Temple, 
all  the  words  of  this  life." 

The  high-priest  and  the  senate  of  the  children  of 
Israel  were  anxious  and  excited  when  they  heard 
that  the  apostles  had  escaped  from  prison,  and  were 
standing  in  the  Temple,  teaching  the  people.  Then 
went  the  captain  with  the  officers,  to  bring  the  apostles 
(without  violence,  for  they  feared  the  people)  before 
the  council.  "Did  we  not  strictly  command  you," 
said  the  high-priest,  "not  to  teach  or  preach  in  this 
name?  Ye  have  filled  Jerusalem  with  your  doctrine, 
and  intend  to  bring  this  man's  blood  upon  us."  Then 
Peter  and  the  other  apostles  replied:  "We  must  obey 
God  rather  than  man."  The  violence  of  this  council 
was  restrained  by  Gamaliel,  a  wise  man  among  them, 
held  in  much  reputation.      His  words  were  :    "Refrain 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        21 

from  these  men  and  let  th;m  alone,  for  if  this  work  or 
this  counsel  be  of  men,  it  will  come  to  naught  ;  but  if 
it  be  of  God,  ye  can  not  overthrow  it ;  lest  haply  ye  be 
found  even  to  fight  against  God."  And  to  him  they 
agreed  ;  and  they  departed  from  the  presence  of  the 
council,  rejoicing  that  they  were  counted  worthy  to 
suffer  shame  for  His  name.  And  daily  in  the  Temple 
and  in  every  house,  they  ceased  not  to  teach  and 
preach  Jesus  Christ.  Gamaliel  seems  to  have  been 
one  of  those  wise,  good  men,  of  whom  in  every  age 
there  have  been  a  few  representatives,  who  despise  a 
persecuting  spirit,  and  who  fearlessly  stand  up  for  truth 
or  an  inquiry  into  truth,  though  surrounded  by  a  greater 
number  of  seditious  opposers. 

The  number  of  the  disciples  at  this  time  was  greatly 
multiplied.  The  apostles,  wishing  to  give  their  whole 
time  to  prayer  and  the  ministry  of  the  Word,  determined 
to  appoint  seven  additional  officers  in  the  Church,  called 
deacons.  These  men  seem  primarily  to  have  been 
appointed  to  superintend  the  bodily  as  well  as  the 
spiritual  wants  of  the  great  influx  of  disciples.  They 
were  dedicated  to  their  work  in  the  most  solemn 
manner ;  they  were  set  before  the  apostles,  and  when 
they  prayed  they  laid  their  hands  on  them.  Two  of 
these  deacons  became  very  celebrated  afterwards,  in  the 
history  of  the  Church.  Stephen  was  the  first  Christian 
martyr.  He  was  drawn  into  controversy  with  the 
Alexandrian  Jews,  Cyrenians,  Libertines,  and  others, 
and  as  they  could  not  resist  the  power  and  energy  by 
which  he  spoke,  they  were  greatly  enraged,  and  suborned 
men  to  bring  charges  of  blasphemy  against  him,  and 
accused  him  'of  an  intention  to  change  the  customs 
which  Moses  had  delivered.      While  he  was  making  his 


22  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

defense  before  the  "men,  brethren,  and  fathers,"  and 
was  declaring  his  faith  in  all  the  interesting  points  of 
Jewish  history,  when  he  quoted  the  words  of  Moses  to 
the  unbelievers  in  his  days,  calling  them  "stiff-necked 
and  uncircumcised  in  heart  and  ears,"  believing  that 
Stephen  made  the  application  of  Moses'  words  to  them, 
they  were  cut  to  the  heart,  and  gnashed  on  him  with 
their  teeth.  They  did  not  permit  him  to  continue  his 
narration.  And  when  Stephen,  lookingly  steadfastly 
upward,  said:  "  I  see  the  heavens  opened,  and  the  Son 
of  man  standing  on  the  right  hand  of  God,"  they 
rushed  on  him  with  great  violence,  cast  him  out  of  the 
city,  and  stoned  him.  He  calling  upon  God  and  saying, 
"Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit,"  kneeled  down  and 
cried  with  a  loud  voice,  "  Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  their 
charge."  How  cruel  and  dreadful  is  fanaticism  !  Many 
of  these  Jews  doubtless  thought  they  were  obeying  the 
law,  as  recorded  in  the  13th  chapter  of  Deuteronomy. 
The  clothes  of  the  witnesses  of  this  martyrdom  were 
laid  down  at  the  feet  of  a  young  man  named  "Saul." 
The  Jewish  law  required  the  presence  of  two  or  three 
witnesses,  to  testify  as  to  the  cause  of  blood-shedding. 
The  most  dreadful  crimes  have  sometimes  been 
perpetrated  according  to  the  forms  of  law.  Law,  it 
has  been  said,  is  the  voice  of  God,  but  it  has  not  always 
been  so  administered  as  to  protect  and  defend  the  rights 
of  the  innocent  from  the  infuriated  passions  of  bad 
men.  Religion,  heaven-born  as  she  is,  awakens  and 
rouses  the  deepest  and  strongest  passions  of  the  heart, 
and  if  not  kept  in  subjection  to  the  "  Law  of  Love,"  as 
revealed  in  the  New  Testament,  has  produced  and  will 
produce  the  most  direful  consequences. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  23 

The  deacon  Philip  went  to  the  city  of  Samaria,  and 
preached  Christ  unto  them.  In  this  city,  Philip  had 
great  success,  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  Simon, 
a  sorcerer.  When  the  apostles,  who  were  at  Jerusalem, 
heard  that  Samaria  had  received  the  Word  of  God,  and 
that  they  had  been  baptized  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ,  they  (the  apostles)  sent  down  unto  them  Peter 
and  John.  These  now  laid  their  hands  on  the  converts, 
that  they  might  receive  the  Holy  Ghost.  Philip  also 
made  another  convert  of  rank  and  importance,  an  officer 
who  held  a  high  station  with  the  queen  of  the  Ethropians. 
The  persecution  after  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen  was 
very  favorable  to  the  progress  of  Christianity.  The 
disciples  were  scattered  abroad  throughout  the  regions 
of  Judea  and  Samaria,  except  the  apostles.  They  seem 
to  have  remained  at  their  post  in  Jerusalem.  The 
death  of  Stephen  seems  to  be  connected  with  the 
conversion  of  St.  Paul.  Saul,  breathing  threatenings 
and  slaughter  against  the  disciples  of  the  Lord,  went  to 
the  high  priest  for  letters  to  Damascus,  that  he  might 
seize  any  Christians,  men  or  women,  that  he  might 
bring  them  bound  to  Jerusalem.  And  as  he  journeyed 
and  came  near  to  Damascus,  there  occurred  the  remark-, 
able  conversion  which  changed  a  fierce  persecutor  into 
the  most  zealous  of  all  the  Christian  teachers.  It  was 
the  privilege  of  this  great  man  to  hear  the  voice  of  his 
Lord  and  Master;  to  hear  the  words  of  reproof  in  a 
loving  voice,  which  bade  him  arise,  to  go  to  Damascus, 
not  to  persecute,  but  to  receive  the  initiatory  rite  of 
baptism  into  the  fold  he  had  so  lately  threatened  and 
despised.  He  is  received  and  greeted  as  a  brother  by 
Ananias  at  Damascus,  who  had  been  instructed  by  a 


24  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST, 

vision  not  to  doubt  the  new  disciple.  Saul  was  probably 
deeply  touched  by  what  he  witnessed  at  the  martyrdom 
of  Stephen ;  but,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  his  fury  was 
increased  and  maddened  by  the  doubts  that  now  entered 
his  mind.  "To  propagate  Christianity  in  the  enlight- 
ened West,  where  its  most  permanent  conquests  were 
to  be  made,  to  emancipate  it  from  the  trammels  of 
Judaism,  a  man  was  wanting  of  comprehensive  views,  of 
higher  education  and  more  liberal  accomplishments. 
Such  an  instrument  was  found  in  Saul  of  Tarsus.  Born 
in  the  Grecian  city  of  Tarsus,  yet  a  Roman  citizen,  his 
Judaism  was  in  no  degree  weakened  by  his  Grecian 
culture.  Saul  stood  on  the  confines  of  both  religions, 
qualified  beyond  all  men  to  develop  a  system  which 
should  unite  Jew  and  Gentile  under  a  more  harmonious 
and  comprehensive  faith."  Above  all,  his  extraor- 
dinary, unprecedented  conversion  gave  him  a  zeal  which 
seemed  to  eclipse  the  rest  of  the  apostles. 

Part  of  the  three  years  which  elapsed  between  the 
conversion  of  Paul  and  his  first  visit  to  Jerusalem,  was 
passed  in  Arabia.  He  had  narrowly  escaped  the  fury 
of  his  brethren  at  Damascus,  who  sought  his  death. 
He  passed,  it  is  supposed,  more  than  a  year  in  Arabia, 
in  exile,  employing  himself,  probably,  in  instructing  the 
Jews,  who  were  scattered  in  great  numbers  in  Arabia. 
Though  he  had  sacrificed  much  favor  with  his  country- 
men in  becoming  a  Christian,  he  was  at  first  coldly 
received  by  the  Christians  at  Jerusalem ;  even  the 
apostles  stood  aloof.  Ananias,  enlightened  by  a  vision, 
had  convinced  the  Christians  of  Damascus  of  Paul's 
sincerity,  and  by  their  loving  zeal  he  had  been  delivered 
from  the  fury  of  the   Damascene    Jews.      Barnabas,  a 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  25 

convert  of  Cyprus,  introduced  Paul  to  the  apostles  at 
Jerusalem,  declaring  to  them  his  marvelous  conversion, 
while  journeying  to  Damascus  as  a  persecutor,  and  how 
he  had  preached  boldly  at  Damascus  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord  Jesus.  And  Paul  was  with  them,  coming  in  and 
out  at  Jerusalem,  speaking  boldly  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
and  disputing  with  the  Grecians,  whose  wrath  was 
kindled  against  him.  The  brethren  then  brought  Paul 
down  to  Caesarea,  and  from  thence  to  Tarsus.  The 
Christians  at  this  time,  just  previous  to  the  accession  of 
Herod  Agrippa,  enjoyed  peace  about  three  years.  The 
time  was  zealously  employed  in  disseminating  the 
gospel  in  every  part  of  Judea.  The  peace  enjoyed  by 
the  Christians  at  this  time  is  attributed  to  the  fact  of 
the  anxiety  of  the  Jews  about  the  independence  of  their 
religion.  The  frantic  Caligula,  emperor  of  Rome, 
insisted  that  his  statue  should  be  placed  in  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem.  The  Jews,  filled  with  horror  at  such  a 
demand,  refused  to  sow,  or  reap,  or  attend  to  their 
accustomed  duties,  unless  the  emperor  should  desist 
from  so  sacrilegious  an  attempt.  It  required  all  the 
moderation  and  conciliation  of  Petronius,  the  Roman 
governor,  to  quiet  the  Jewish  people.  By  well-timed 
delays,  in  postponing,  by  various  expedients,  the  dese- 
cration of  the  holy  house,  the  foolish,  profane  desire  of 
the  emperor  was  not  executed.      He  died  !  * 

During  this  time  the  apostle  Peter  passed  through 
all  quarters,  preaching  and  working  miracles  at  Lydda 
and  Joppa.  While  at  Joppa,  he  was  summoned  to 
Caesarea  to  visit  Cornelius,  a  Roman  centurion.  It  was 
on  this  occasion  that  Peter  declared  that  the  partition- 


Caligula. 
3 


26  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

wall  between  Jew  and  Gentile  was  broken  down,  in 
these  words:  "  Of  a  truth  I  perceive  that  God  is  no 
respecter  of  persons,  but  in  eveTj  nation  he  that  feareth 
God  and  worketh  righteousness  is  accepted  with  Him." 
Peter's  sermon  on  this  occasion  was  accompanied  by  the 
gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  they  of  the  circumcision 
who  came  with  Peter  were  astonished,  that  upon  the 
Gentiles  was  poured  out  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  2/ 


CHAPTER   II. 

When  the  apostles  and  brethren  who  were  in  Judea 
heard  that  the  Gentiles  had  received  the  word  of  God, 
they  contended  with  Peter,  saying,  "Thou  wentest  in 
unto  men  uncircumcised  and  did  eat  with  them."  But 
when  Peter  rehearsed  the  matter  relating  to  Cornelius, 
from  the  beginning,  they  glorified  God,  saying,  "  Then 
hath  God  also  to  the  Gentiles  granted  repentance  unto 
life,"  Jewish  prejudices  were  beginning  to  yield.  The 
first  step  towards  abrogating  the  differences  between 
Jew  and  Gentile  was  taken  by  Peter.  Paul,  assisted  by 
Barnabas,  was  the  most  active  apostle  in  emancipating 
the  Jewish  converts  from  the  inveterate  prejudices  of 
their  old  religion.  Samaria  had  already  received  the 
new  religion  to  some  extent,  but  it  seems  the  conflict 
in  that  city  was  with  Orientalism  rather  than  Judaism. 
Christianity,  aspiring  to  the  moral  conquest  of  the  world 
had  to  contend  with  three  antagonists :  Judaism,  Ori- 
entalism and  Paganism.  The  conversion  of  Cornelius, 
recorded  in  the  loth  chapter  of  the  Acts,  took  place 
before  the  persecution  of  Herod  Agrippa.  Herod 
affected  the  splendor  of  his  grandfather,  Herod  the 
Great,  but  unlike  him  he  made  the  strictest  profession 
of  Judaism.  He  determined  to  suppress  Christianity 
by  vigorous  means.  James,  the  brother  of  St.  John, 
was  the  first  victim.  At  this  time  the  power  of  life 
and  death  was  restored  for  a  short  time  to  the   Jews. 

Peter  was  imprisoned.      Prayer  was  made  without 
ceasing  for  him.     The  same  night,  as  we   learn  from 


28  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  1 2th  chapter  of  the  Acts,  when  Herod  would  have 
brought  Peter  forth,  he  was  miraculously  delivered 
from  the  prison.  He  at  first  thought  "  he  saw  a  vision, 
and  wist  not  that  it  was  true."  When  Peter  was 
come  to  himself,  he  said,  Now  I  know  of  a  surety  that 
God  hath  sent  his  angel  and  delivered  me  from  Herod 
and  the  expectation  of  the  Jews.  Then  Peter  went  to 
the  house  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  John,  whose  surname 
was  Mark,  where  many  were  gathered  together  pray- 
ing. Christianity  had  now  been  preached  at  Phenice, 
Cyprus  and  Antioch.  A  great  number  believed  and 
turned  to  the  Lord.  When  the  church  at  Jerusalem 
heard  of  the  conversions  at  Antioch  they  sent  forth 
Barnabas  that  he  should  go  thither.  Barnabas  was 
glad  when  he  saw  the  grace  of  God  at  Antioch.  He 
went  to  Tarsus  to  seek  Saul,  that  he  might  assist  him  in 
the  work  of  teaching  at  Antioch.  For  a  whole  year 
Barnabas  and  Saul  assembled  themselves  with  the 
church  and  "taught  much  people."  The  disciples 
were  called  Christians  first  in  Antioch.  A  famine 
prevailed  about  this  time,  a.  d.  43,  in  Judea.  The 
disciples  determined  to  send  relief  to  their  brethren  in 
Judea  by  the  hands  of  Barnabas  and  Saul.  Claudius 
Caesar  was  then  Emperor  of  Rome. 

In  the  terrJ^c  and  repulsive  circumstances  of  Her- 
od's death,  shortly  after  the  deliverance  of  Peter,  the 
Jewish  historian,  Josephus,  and  the  writer  of  the  Acts, 
agree.  Christianity  as  yet  was  but  an  expanded  Juda- 
ism ;  it  was  preached  by  Jews,  it  was  addressed  to  Jews. 
The  son  of  Herod,  being  a  minor,  colild  not  succeed 
his  father,  therefore  a  Roman  prefect  assumed  the 
provincial  government  of  Judea.  The  Sanhedrim  had 
not  now  the  power  to  take  violent  measures  against  the 


'  ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        2g 

Christians.  After  the  mission  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to 
Jerusalem,  about  the  time  of  the  Herodian  persecution, 
these  two  distinguished  teachers  were  invested  with  the 
divine  sanction  in  the  apostolic  office.  By  fasting  and 
praying  and  laying  on  of  hands,  these  men  were  pre- 
pared for  their  work.  They  went  to  Selencia  and  to 
Cyprus  and  when  they  were  at  Salamis  they  preached 
the  Word  of  God  in  the  synagogues  of  the  Jews.  They 
visited  Paphos  and  Perga  in  Pamphylia,  also  Antioch 
in  Pisidia.  In  this  city  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  after 
the  reading  of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  invited  Paul  to 
make  an  exhortation  to  the  people.  After  giving  them 
the  principal  points  in  the  Jewish  history,  Paul  declared 
to  them  the  birth,  death  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  and 
explained  to  them  the  prophecies  of  David  with  regard 
to  Jesus.  "Be  it  known  to  you  therefore,  men  and 
brethren,  that  through  this  man  is  preached  unto  you  t/ie 
forgiveness  of  sins,  and  by  Him  all  that  believe  are  justi- 
fied without  the  Law  of  Moses.  And  when  the  Jews  were 
gone  out  from  this  assembly,  the  Gentiles  besought  that 
these  words  might  be  preached  to  them  the  next  Sab- 
bath. And  the  next  Sabbath  day,  came  together  almost 
the  whole  city,  to  hear  the  Word  of  God.  But  when 
the  Jews  saw  the  multitudes,  they  were  moved  with 
envy,  and  spake  against  the  things  spoken  by  Paul,  con- 
tradicting and  blaspheming.  Then  Paul  and  Barnabas 
waxed  bold  and  said.  It  was  necessary  that  the  Word 
of  God  should  first  be  spoken  to  you  ;  but  seeing  ye 
put  it  from  you  and  hold  yourselves  unworthy  of  ever- 
lasting life,  lo,  we  turn  to  the  Gentiles."  And  the 
word  of  the  Lord  was  published  throughout  all  that 
region.  But  the  Jews  stirred  up  the  devout  and  hon- 
orable women,  and  the  chief  men  of  the  city  raised  a 


30        ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

persecution  against  Paul  and  Barnabas  and  expelled 
them  from  their  coasts.  Then  they  went  to  Iconium, 
into  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews,  and  a  great  multitude 
both  of  Jews  and  Greeks  believed.  But  this  city  after- 
wards became  divided  in  sentiment,  and  when  an 
assault  was  about  to  be  made  the  Apostles  fled  to 
Derbe  and  Lystra,  cities  of  Lycaonia.  There  they 
preached  the  gospel  and  performed  a  miracle  on  a  lame 
man,  and  when  the  people  saw  what  Paul  had  done 
they  lifted  up  their  voices  in  the  barbarous  dialect  of 
their  country  saying,  "The  gods  have  come  down  to 
us  in  the  likeness  of  men."  And  they  called  Barnabas 
Jupiter,  and  Paul  Mercurius,  because  he  was  the  chief 
speaker.  Then  the  Priest  of  Jupiter  brought  oxen  and 
garlands  and  would  have  done  sacrifice  unto  them, 
which  when  Paul  and  Barnabas  heard,  they  rent  their 
clothes  and  ran  in  among  them,  crying  our,  "  Sirs,  why 
do  ye  these  things  ?  We  are  men  of  like  passions  with 
you,  and  preach  unto  you,  that  ye  should  turn  from 
these  vanities  to  the  living  God,  which  made  heaven 
and  earth  and  all  things  therein."  With  these  words 
they  scarcely  restrained  the  people  from  doing  sacrifice 
unto  them.  Lystra  and  Derbe  were  cities  in  the  center 
of  a  Pagan  population.  Christianity  came  now  for 
the  first  time  in  direct  collision  with  Paganism.  Jews, 
however,  came  thither  from  Antioch  and  Iconium  and 
instituted  a  persecution  against  the  Apostles ;  they 
stoned  Paul,  and  drew  him  out  of  the  city,  believing 
him  to  be  dead,  but  as  the  disciples  gathered  around 
him  Paul  rose  up  and  came  into  the  city.  The  next 
day  the  Apostles  went  to  Derbe,  and  taught  many. 
They  returned  also  to  Lystra,  to  Iconium  and  to  Anti- 
och,   confirming   the   souls   of    the    disciples.       They 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  3 1 

ordained  *  elders  or  presbyters  in  every  church,  com- 
mending them  to  the  Lord  in  whom  they  beHeved. 
After  these  things  they  returned  to  Antioch  (in  Syria) 
and  rehearsed  to  the  church  what  God  had  done,  and 
how  God  had  opened  the  door  of  faith  to  the  Gentiles. 
And  there  they  abode  a  long  time.  About  this  time 
Paul  and  Barnabas  met  certain  Judaizing  teachers  say- 
ing, "  Except  ye  be  circumcised  ye  can  not  be  saved." 
It  was  determined  at  Antioch  that  Paul  and  Barnabas 
should  go  up  to  Jerusalem  unto  the  Apostles  and  elders 
about  this  question  of  circumcision.  The  church 
brotight  them  on  their  way  ;  they  passed  through  Phenice 
and  Samaria  declaring  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles, 
and  they  caused  great  joy  to  all  the  brethren.  And 
the  apostles  and  elders  came  together  to  consider  this 
question,  whether  it  was  needful  to  keep  the  Law  of 
Moses  as  regarded  circumcision.  And  when  there  was 
much  disputation  Peter  rose  up,  arguing  against  the 
yoke  of  circumcision,  as  regarded  the  Gentiles,  Then 
the  multitude  kept  silence,  listening  to  Barnabas  and 
Saul,  who  recounted  what  God  had  wrought  for  the 
Gentiles  by  them.  Then  James  after  some  words  of 
instruction  and  referring  to  the  words  of  Simon,  de- 
clared his  sentence — "My  sentence  is  that  we  trouble 
not  them,  which  from  among  the  Gentiles  are  turned 
to  God.  But  that  we  write  unto  them,  that  they 
abstain  from  pollution  of  idols,  from  fornication,  from 
things  strangled  and  from  blood."  Then  pleased  it  the 
Apostles  and  elders  with  the  whole  church  to  send  to 
Antioch  chosen  men  of  their  own  company,  with  Paul 
and  Barnabas,  Judas    and  Silas,  chief  men  among  the 


*  Bishops,  Elders  or  Presbyters  are  names,  applied  to  the  same  office 
while  the  Apostles  lived. 


32        ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

brethren.  And  they  wrote  letters  by  them  after  this 
manner:  "The  Apostles  and  elders  and  brethren  send 
greeting  unto  the  brethren  of  Antioch,  of  Syria  and 
Cilicia — Forasmuch  as  certain  which  went  out  from  us 
have  troubled  you  with  words,  it  has  seemed  good  to  us, 
being  assembled  with  one  accord,  to  send  to  you  our 
beloved  Barnabas  and  Paul,  who  have  hazarded  their 
lives  for  the  Lord  Jesus ;  also  Judas  and  Silas,  who  will 
tell  you  the  same  things.  We  desire  to  lay  upon  you 
no  greater  burdens  than  these  necessary  things,  absti- 
nence from  meats  offered  to  idols,  from  blood  and  from 
fornication.  "  When  they  were  dismissed  they  came  to 
Antioch  and  delivered  the  epistle  to  the  multitude. 
Judas  and  Silas  were  permitted  to  return  unto  the 
Apostles  Paul  and  Barnabas,  but  Silas  was  pleased  to 
abide  there  still.  When  Paul  and  Barnabas  revisited 
the  cities  where  they  had  made  many  converts,  Barna- 
bas desired  to  take  John  Mark,  but  Paul  chose  Silas, 
so  that  they  separated,  Barnabas  going  to  Cyprus  with 
Mark,  and  Paul  with  Silas  to  Syria  and  Cilicia.  When 
Paul  returned  to  Lystra  he  found  there  a  disciple,  Tim- 
otheus,  or  Timothy,  afterward  so  celebrated  on  account 
of  the  two  epistles  written  to  him  by  Paul,  when  he  was 
bishop  (as  tradition  says)  of  Ephesus.  As  they  passed 
through  the  cities  they  delivered  to  the  brethren  copies 
of  the  decrees  they  had  received  from  the  Apostles  and 
Elders  at  Jerusalem.  And  the  churches  were  estab- 
lished in  the  faith  and  increased  in  number  daily. 
After  passing  through  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  Paul  passed 
from  Troas  over  into  Macedonia,  a  vision  having  ap- 
peared to  him  in  the  night,  saying  "Come  over  to 
Macedonia  and  help  us."      He  went  to  Philippi,  one 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  33 

of  the  chief  cities  of  Macedonia.  He  met  by  the  river 
side,  Lydia,  a  seller  of  purple,  who  became  a  disciple, 
(she  was  of  the  city  of  Thyatira),  she  was  baptized  with 
her  household,  and  she  persuaded  Paul  to  abide  in  her 
house.  About  this  time  Paul  and  Silas  were  taken  by 
certain  men,  and  brought  to  the  magistrates  of  Philippi 
who  were  incensed  against  Paul  and  Silas  because  they 
had  exorcised  from  a  damsel,  a  spirit  of  divination.  This 
girl  had  brought  money  to  her  masters  by  soothsaying. 
Paul  and  Silas  were  beaten  and  then  thrust  into  the 
jail  at  Philippi,  and  their  feet  made  fast  in  the  stocks. 
At  midnight  Paul  and  Silas  sung  praises  unto  God,  and 
the  prisoners  heard  them.  Suddenly  an  earthquake 
shook  the  prison,  and  all  the  doors  were  opened.  The 
keeper  awaking,  fearing  that  the  prisoners  had  fled, 
drew  his  sword  and  would  have  killed  himself,  but  Paul 
ciied  to  him,  "  Do  thyself  no  harm,  we  are  all  here." 
Then  the  jailer  called  for  a  light,  and  came  trembling, 
falling  down  before  Paul  and  Silas,  saying,  "Sirs,  what 
must  I  do  to  be  saved  ?  "  and  they  said  :  ' '  Believe  on  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  thou  shalt  be  saved  and  thy 
house."  And  they  spoke  unto  him,  and  unto  all  that 
were  in  his  house.  And  the  jailer  washed  the  stripes 
of  Paul  and  Silas  the  same  hour  of  the  night,  and  they 
were  baptized,  he  and  all  his,  straightway — and  he  set 
meat  before  them.  The  magistrates  became  alarmed 
when  they  heard  that  the  men  whom  they  had  impris- 
oned were  Romans,  and  they  came  to  them  giv- 
ing them  liberty  and  beseeching  them  to  leave  the 
city.  They  left  the  prison  and  entered  into  the  house 
of  Lydia,  and  after  comforting  the  brethren  they  de- 
parted from  the  city  of  Philippi.  They  passed  through 
Amphipolis  and  Apollonia  and  came  to  Thessalonica. 


34  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

In  this  city  there  was  a  synagogue  of  the  Jews ;  and 
after  the  manner  of  Paul,  he  reasoned  with  them  three 
Sabbath  days,  out  of  the  Scriptures,  alleging  that  Jesus 
was  Christ  and  that  he  must  needs  have  suffered  and 
risen  from  the  dead.  A  great  multitude  of  the  Greeks 
believed,  and  many  of  the  devout  women.  But  the 
unbelieving  Jews  stirred  up  an  uproar  among  the 
people,  saying,  "  These  who  have  turned  the  world  up- 
side down  have  come  hither  also,  doing  contrary  to  the 
decrees  of  Caesar  saying :  There  is  another  king, 
one  Jesus." 

The  brethren  then  sent  away  Paul  and  Silas  to 
Berea.  The  people  of  Berea  were  more  noble  than 
those  of  Thessalonica,  inasmuch  as  they  daily  searched 
the  Scriptures  whether  these  things  were  so.  But  a 
disturbance  occurring  in  Berea,  Paul  was  sent  away  by 
the  brethren  ;  but  Silas  and  Timothy  abode  there  still. 
Paul  went  to  Athens  and  preached  on  Mars'  Hill.  Paul 
was  invited  by  the  philosophers  of  the  Epicureans  and 
Stoics  to  come  to  the  Areopagus  and  speak  of  the  new 
doctrine,  Paul  made  an  eloquent  speech  to  them,  which 
is  found  in  the  17th  chapter  of  the  Acts,  quoting  from 
their  own  poets  to  strengthen  his  argument  for  the  living 
God,  and  reproving  them  for  their  superstition.  When 
he  spoke  of '  *  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, "  some  mocked 
— but  some  converts  were  made.  From  Athens,  Paul 
proceeded  to  Corinth.  This  city  had  now  recovered  all  its 
wealth  and  splendor.  It  had  been  destroyed  by  Mum- 
mius  a  Roman  consul,  146  b.  c.  Julius  Caesar  planted 
a  colony  there.  It  then  arose  like  a  phoenix  from  its 
ashes.  It  formed  a  connecting  link  between  Italy, 
Northern  Greece  and  Asia.  It  was  a  rich  central  com- 
mercial mart.     An  unusual  number  of  Jews  had  at  this 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  35 

time  congregated  in  Corinth,  in  consequence  of  an 
edict  of  Claudius  expelling  the  Jews  from  Rome.  Sue- 
tonius the  historian  attributes  this  edict  to  the  mutual 
hostility  of  the  Christians  and  Jews.  Christianity  must, 
therefore,  have  made  considerable  progress  in  Rome. 
With  two  of  the  exiles  Paul  now  made  his  abode  and 
pursued  with  them  the  same  occupation.  The  Jews, 
even  the  most  learned,  usually  applied  themselves  to 
some  art  or  trade.  Paul  was  a  tent-maker.  At  Corinth, 
for  the  first  time,  the  Christians  seemed  to  have  a  sep- 
arate school  of  instruction.  They  seceded  from  the 
synagogue,  and  Crispus,  one  of  the  chief  rulers,  joined 
with  them.  Silas  and  Timothy  came  over  to  help  Paul. 
At  length  Paul  declared  to  those  Jews  who  opposed  him 
and  blasphemed,  his  determination  to  devote  himself  to 
the  Gentiles.  Many  of  the  Corinthians,  hearing  the  argu- 
ments of  Paul,  believed  and  were  baptized.  Paul  had 
while  in  Corinth  an  encouraging  vision.  "  For  I  am 
with  thee  ;  I  have  much  people  in  this  city."  'Strength- 
ened by  impresszons  like  these,  Paul  remained  a  year  and 
six  months  in  Corinth.  But  Gallio,  the  Roman  deputy 
"cared  for  none  of  these  things,"  and  gave  no  heed  to 
the  complaints  of  the  Jews  against  the  Christians. 
From  Corinth  Paul  went  to  Ephesus,  previously  visit- 
ing the  churches  at  Caesarea  and  Antioch.  Paul  seems 
to  have  remained  in  t^phesus  and  in  the  neighbor- 
ing country  for  the  space  of  two  years,  so  that  all  they 
which  dwelt  in  Asia,  heard  the  word  of  the  Lord  Jesus, 
both  Jews  and  Greeks.  Paul  met  in  Ephesus  some  of 
the  disciples  of  John  the  Baptist,  These  he  fully 
instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  The  most 
eminent  of  these  disciples  was  Apollos,  who  being  an 
eloquent  man  became  very  conspicuous  as  a  teacher — 


36  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  Other  disciples  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  Christian  com- 
munity at  Ephesus.  Many  of  the  Jewish  exorcists 
dwelling  at  Ephesus  came  and  confessed  and  showed 
their  deeds,  and  burned  their  books  which  had  been  of 
great  pecuniary  value  to  them.  But  there  was  a  com- 
mon article  of  trade  at  Ephesus,  that  was  not  so  easily 
surrendered  ;  this  was  a  shrine  of  silver  made  for  the 
temple  of  Diana.  The  sale  of  these  shrines  and  other 
works  of  art  had  gradually  diminished,  and  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Demetrius,  one  of  the  chief  artisans  of  these 
shrines,  a  great  popular  tumult  was  excited.  This 
man  addressed  the  multitude,  saying,  "  Ye  see  and 
hear  that  not  alone  at  Ephesus,  but  through  all  Asia, 
this  Paul  hath  turned  away  much  people,  saying  that 
they  be  no  gods  which  are  made  with  hands.  So  that  not 
only  our  craft  is  in  danger  to  be  set  at  naught ;  but  also 
that  the  great  goddess  Diana  should  be  despised  and 
her  magnificence  destroyed,  whom  all  Asia  (a  part  of 
Asia  Minor)  and  all  the  world  worshipeth."  When 
the  people  heard  these  things  they  cried  out,  ' '  Great  is 
Diana  of  the  Ephesians."  The  city  was  filled  with 
confusion.  Some  of  the  chief  men  who  were  friends  of 
Paul  would  not  suffer  him  to  adventure  himself  among 
them. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        37 


CHAPTER  III. 


PAUL  S    TRAVELS. 


The  town  clerk  of  Ephesus  finally  appeased  them  by 
consenting  to  their  belief,  that  the  image  of  Diana  had 
fallen  down  from  Jupiter;  "seeing  that  this  thing  can  not  be 
disputed,  ye  ought  to  be  quiet. "  He  then  reminded  them 
that  they  were  in  danger  (as  Roman  citizens)  (Acts  xix.  35) 
of  being  called  to  account  for  this  day's  uproar.  He  told 
them — as  we  would  tell  the  rebellious  to-day — that  the 
law  was  open ;  all  their  evils  would  be  redressed  in  a 
lawful  assembly,  "seeing  that  these  men  are  not  robbers 
of  your  temples  or  blasphemers  of  your  goddess." 
The  temple  of  Ephesus  was  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
world.  Paul  soon  afterward  withdrew  from  the  excited 
city  and  pursued  his  former  line  of  travel  through 
Macedonia  and  Greece.  The  exiles  from  Rome  had 
quietly  passed  back  to  their  usual  residences  in  the  me- 
tropolis. In  writing  his  epistle  to  the  Romans,  Paul 
evidently  addresses  those,  with  whom  he  is  personally 
acquainted.  As  he  had  not  yet  been  to  Italy,  he  had 
doubtless  formed  these  acquaintances  at  Corinth.  He 
abode  three  months  in  Greece,  after  leaving  Macedonia. 
He  then  returned  to  Philippi,  in  Macedonia,  where  he 
took  shipping  and  sailed  over  the  yEgean  to  Troas. 
While  Paul  was  preaching  at  Troas,  the  night  being  far 
spent,  one  of  his  hearers,  Eutychus,  fell  down  while 
asleep,  from  the  third  loft.  Paul  soon  restored  him. 
From  Troas  to  Assos  Paul  went  afoot,  but  the  ship  took 


38  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

him  in  and  came  to  Mitylene.  While  at  Mitylene,  Paul 
sent  to  Ephesus  for  the  elders  of  the  Church.  After 
giving  the  Elders  many  exhortations,  how  they  should 
behave  to  the  flock  of  God  over  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
had  made  them  overseers,  he  took  a  solemn  leave  of 
them,  telling  them  to  remember  the  words  of  the  Lord 
Jesus:  "It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive." 
And  he  kneeled  down  and  prayed  with  them  all,  and 
they  fell  on  Paul's  neck,  and  wept  sore,  sorrozving  for 
the  words  which  he  spoke,  that  they  would  see  his  face 
no  more."  And  they  accompanied  him  to  the  ship. 
Paul^  continued  his  travels  to  Coos  and  to  Rhodes  and 
to  Patara,  then  taking  another  ship,  sailed  to  Tyre, 
where  they  remained  seven  days.  They  found  disciples 
at  Tyre  ;  when  they  parted  from  these  friends,  they 
with  their  wives  and  children  kneeled  upon  the  shore 
with  Paul  and  prayed.  Then  they  came  to  Ptolemais 
and  then  to  Caesarea.  In  this  city  they  abode  at  the 
house  of  Philip  the  Evangelist.  Here  the  disciples 
besought  Paul  not  to  go  to  Jerusalem.  But  Paul  was 
determined  to  go,  "and  after  these  days  we  took  up  our 
carriages  and  went  up  to  Jerusalem. "  Some  of  the  disci- 
ples from  Caesarea  went  also,  together  with  an  old  disci- 
ple from  Cyprus,  with  whom  we  should  lodge.  We 
were  received  gladly  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  day  after 
Paul  went  in  with  us  unto  James,  and  the  Elders  all 
were  present.  Paul  declared  to  them  luhat  God  had 
wrought  for  the  Gentiles  by  his  ministry.  And  they 
glorified  the  Lord.  And  when  we  had  saluted  them — 
they  said  to  Paul, ' '  Thou  seest,  brother,  how  many  thous- 
ands of  the  Jews  there  are  which  believe,  and  they  are 
all  zealous  of  the  law :  but  they  are  informed  of  thee, 
that  thou  teachest  all   the  Jews,    that  are  among   the 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  39 

Gentiles,  to  forsake  Moses,  saying  that  they  ought  not 
to  circumcise  their  children.  What  is  it  therefore?" 
Paul  had  gone  to  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  feast  of  Pente- 
cost, the  birthday  of  the  Law.  Understanding  the 
violence  of  his  enemies  at  Jerusalem,  he  determined  to 
comply  with  the  laws  of  prudence,  and  on  the  advice  of 
his  friends  he  went  with  four  persons  into  the  Temple 
who  had  taken  upon  them  a  vow,  that  he  might  evince 
a  personal  reverence  for  the  religion  of  his  ancestors. 
He  was  recognised,  however,  by  his  enemies,  who  made 
a  sudden  outcry  and  charged  him  with  having  intro- 
duced into  the  temple  Trophimus,  a  convert,  who  had 
come  with  him  from  Ephesus.  He  was  charged  with 
having  conversed  with  this  uncircumcised  stranger 
within  the  three  pillars  or  palisades,  which  in  the  three 
languages  of  that  time,  Hebrew,  Greek  and  Latin, 
forbade  the  entrance  of  any  who  were  not  of  pure  Jew- 
ish descent.  They  drew  Paul  violently  out  of  the  tem- 
ple into  the  court  of  the  Gentiles ;  they  were  about  to 
kill  him,  when  the  chief  captain  heard  of  it ;  he  ran 
with  the  soldiers  and  centurions  and  commanded  him  to 
be  bound  with  two  chains,  and  carried  into  the  castle. 
He  was  borne  by  the  soldiers,  to  rescue  him  from  the 
violence  of  the  people.  The  captain,  Lysias,  supposed 
him  to  be  an  insurgent  chieftain  who  might  create  a 
dangerous  riot.  He  demanded  of  Paul  who  he  was, 
and  what  he  intended  to  do.  Then  Paul  said,  "  May  I 
speak  unto  thee?"  Lysias  said,  "Canst  thou  speak 
Greek  ?"  Paul  said,  "  I  am  a  Jew  of  Tarsus,  a  city  of 
Cilicia,  a  citizen  of  no  mean  city,  and  beseech  thee  to  suf- 
fer me  to  speak  unto  the  people."  Paul  stood  on  the 
stairs  and  beckoned  with  the  hand  unto  the  people.  A 
great  silence  now  ensued  and  Paul  spake  to  the  people 


40  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

in  the  Hebrew  tongue.  He  addresses  them  as  "  Men, 
brethren,  and  fathers,"  telHng  them  that  he  had  been 
brought  up  in  Jerusalem  at  the  feet  of  Gamahel,  their 
celebrated  teacher.  He  then  tells  them  of  his  remark- 
able conversion  to  Christianity  while  journeying  from 
Jerusalem  to  Damascus — as  recorded  in  the  22d  chap- 
ter of  the  Acts.  In  order  to  prove  his  sincerity,  that  he 
had  been  a  zealous  Jew,  he  tells  them  that  he  was  pres- 
ent at  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen  and  held  the  clothes 
of  those  who  stoned  him.  He  tells  them  of  his  baptism, 
and  of  a  trance  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  when  the 
voice  of  the  Lord,  who  had  appeared  to  him  in  the  way 
said  to  him  :  "  Depart;  I  will  send  thee  far  hence  unto 
the  Gentiles."  They  heard  him  until  the  word  "  Gen- 
tiles "  was  uttered.  They  then  lifted  up  their  voices 
and  cried,  "Away  with  such  a  fellow  from  the  earth." 
The  chief  captain  had  him  brought  into  the  castle,  that 
he  should  be  examined — he  probably  understanding 
nothing  of  the  address  that  Paul  had  uttered  and  wish- 
ing to  discover  the  cause  of  the  violent  agitation  of  the 
people.  And  as  they  were  about  to  bind  him  with 
thongs,  Paul  said,  "Is  it  lawful  for  you  to  scourge  a 
man  that  is  a  Roman  and  uncondemned  ?  "  When  the 
centurion  heard  that,  he  said  to  the  chief  captain, 
"Take  heed,  what  thou  doest,  this  man  is  a  Roman." 
Then  the  captain  said,  "Tell  me,  art  thou  a  Roman?" 
He  said,  ' '  Yea. ' '  The  captain  said,  * '  With  a  great  sum 
obtained  I  this  freedom."  And  Paul  said,  "But  I  was 
free-born.''  Paul  was  loosed  from  his  bonds,  and  on  the 
morrow  he  was  set  before  the  chief  priests  and  the 
council.  As  Paul  was  speaking,  Ananias  the  High 
Priest,  commanded  him  to  be  smitten  on  the  mouth. 
Then  Paul  said,  "God  shall  smite  thee,  thou  whited  wall ; 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  4I 

for  sittest  thou  to  judge  me  after  the  law,  and  com- 
mandest  me  to  be  smitten  contrary  to  law  ?"  And  some 
said,  "  Revilest  thou  God's  High  Priest?"  "  I  wist  not, 
brethren,  that  he  was  the  High  Priest;  for  it  is  written, 
'Thou  shalt  not  revile  the  ruler  of  thy  people.'" 
When  Paul  perceived  that  there  was  a  mixed  council  of 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  he  cried  out  that  he  was  a 
Pharisee  and  the  son  of  a  Pharisee,  "and  for  the  hope 
and  resurrection  of  the  dead  I  am  called  in  question." 
The  chief  captain  seeing  the  tumult,  brought  him  by 
force  out  of  their  hands  to  the  castle.  A  conspiracy 
was  formed  against  the  life  of  Paul,  the  plot  was  dis- 
covered, and  Paul  was  conveyed  to  Ca;sarea  under  a 
strong  guard.  The  captain  wrote  a  letter  to  the  gov- 
ernor of  Caesarea :  "Claudius  Lysias,  unto  the  most 
excellent  governor  Felix,  This  man  was  taken  of  the 
Jews  and  would  have  been  killed,  but  I  came  with  an 
army  and  rescued  him,  having  learned  that  he  was  a 
Roman.  When  I  inquired  into  the  cause,  I  perceived 
it  to  be  questions  of  their  law,  but  to  have  nothing 
laid  to  his  charge,  worthy  of  death  or  of  bonds." 
When  they  came  to  Caesarea  and  delivered  the  epistle 
of  Lysias  to  Felix,  he  a^ked  of  what  province  he  was. 
When  he  heard  that  he  was  of  Cilicia,  "  I  will  hear 
thee,"  he  said,  "when  thy  accusers  have  come."  And 
he  was  placed  in  Herod's  judgment  hall.  After  a  few 
days,  Ananias  with  elders  and  a  certain  orator  came 
down  to  set  forth  their  charges  against  Paul.  Tertullus, 
the  orator,  called  him  a  pestilent  fellow  and  a  mover  of 
sedition.  Then  Paul  was  invited  by  the  governor  to 
make  his  defense.  Paul  spoke  of  the  resurrection  and 
explained  to  Felix  why  he  had  gone  up  to  Jerusalem. 
Felix  having  married  a  Jewess,  had  some  knowledge  of 
4 


42  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHFIST. 

the  questions  that  Paul  discussed ;  he  had,  too,  been  a 
judg'e  of  the  Jewish  nation  for  many  years.  Felix  post- 
poned a  decision  until  Lysias  came  down  ;  he  com- 
manded a  centurion  to  keep  Paul  and  give  him  liberty. 
Felix  with  his  wife  Drusilla  afterwards  sent  for  Paul, 
and  heard  him  concerning  his  faith  in  Christ.  And  as 
Paul  reasoned  of  righteousness,  temperance,  and  judg- 
ment to  come,  Felix  trembled,  and  said,  "  Go  thy  way 
this  time ;  when  I  have  a  convenient  season  I  will  call 
for  thee."  After  two  years,  Porcius  Festus  came  in 
Felix's  room,  and  Felix,  willing  to  show  the  Jews  a 
pleasure,  left  Paul  bound.  While  Festus  was  at  Jerusa- 
lem, the  High  Priest  and  the  chief  of  the  Jews,  besought 
'Festus  that  he  should  send  Paul  to  Jerusalem  to  be 
judged,  but  Festus  answered  that  Paul  should  be  kept  at 
Caesarea,  and  that  he  would  shortly  depart  thither. 
"  Let  them  therefore,  said  he,  which  among  you  are 
able,  go  down  with  me  and  accuse  this  man  if  there 
be  any  wickedness  in  him."  Paul  was  a  few  days 
after  summoned  to  the  judgment-seat  of  Festus  at 
Caesarea.  The  Jews  which  came  down  from  Jerusa- 
lem laid  many  grievous  complaints  against  him 
which  they  could  not  prove.  Then  Festus  said, 
"  Wilt  thou  go  up  to  Jerusalem  and  there  be  judged  of 
these  things  before  me?  "  Then  said  Paul, "  I  stand  at 
Cajsar's  judgment-seat.  To  the  Jews  I  have  done  noth- 
ing wrong,  as  thou  very  well  knowest.  If  I  be  an 
offender  or  have  done  anything  worthy  of  death,  I  re- 
fuse not  to  die ;  but  if  there  be  none  of  these  things 
whereof  these  accuse  me,  7io  man  may  deliver  me  unto 
them.  I  appeal  unto^Caesar."  Festus,  unlike  Felix, 
seems  to  have  been  ignorant  of  the  Jewish  religion  ;  the 
questions  discussed  between  Paul  and  the  Jews  were 
incomprehensible  to  him.     Festus  tells  Agrippa  that 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        43 

the  Jews  had  certain  questions  against  Paul  of  their 
own  superstition  and  of  one  Jesus,  which  was  dead, 
whom  Paul  affirmed  to  be  alive.  Agrippa's  curiosity 
is  awakened,  and  he  desires  to  hear  Paul.  On  the  mor- 
row, Agrippa  came,  and  Bernice,  with  great  pomp  to 
the  place  of  hearing.  Agrippa  had  just  come  from 
Rome  to  Caesarea  with  his  sister ;  he  had  succeeded  to  a 
part  of  his  father's  dominions.  He  was  in  possession 
of  the  Asmonean  palace  at  Jerusalem,  and  had  the 
right  of  appointing  the  High  Priest.  The  Roman  gov- 
ernor seems  to  have  consulted  Agrippa,  as  a  man  of 
moderation  and  knowledge  of  the  Roman  law.  "I  have 
brought  this  man  before  thee,  O  King  Agrippa,  that 
after  examination  had,  I  might  have  somewhat  to 
write.  For  it  seemeth  to  me  unreasonable  to  send 
a  prisoner  (to  Rome),  and  not  withal  to  signify  the 
crimes  laid  against  him." 

The  26th  chapter  of  the  Acts  contains  the  elo- 
quent speech  and  defense  of  Paul  before  Agrippa. 
As  Paul  proceeded  with  passionate  eloquence,  Festus 
cried  out,  "  Paul,  thou  art  beside  thyself;  much  learning 
doth  make  thee  mad."  But  Paul  said,  "I  am  not 
mad,  but  speak  forth  the  words  of  truth  and  soberness. 
The  king  knoweth  of  these  things,  before  whom  I 
speak  freely.  For  I  am  persuaded  that  none  of  these 
things  were  hidden  from  him,  for  this  thing  was  not 
done  in  ^  corner."  Then  Agrippa  said  unto  Paul, 
"Almost  thou  persuadest  me  to  be  a  Christian."  Then 
said  Agrippa  unto  Festus,  "  This  man  might  have  been 
set  at  liberty  had  he  not  appealed  to  Cesar. "  In  the  27th 
chapter  is  related  Paul's  journey  to  Rome.  He  and 
other  prisoners  were  put  under  the  care  of  a  centurion. 
After  a  shipwreck  and  many   dangers,  they  arrive  at 


44  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Rome.  During  Paul's  journey  he  had  a  vision  at  night, 
which  assured  him  that  notwithstanding  the  wreck  of 
the  ship,  all  that  sailed  with  him  should  arrive  in  safety. 
Christian  brethren  from  Rome  met  him  before  he 
reached  the  city.  The  centurion  delivered  the  other 
prisoners  to  the  captain  of  the  guard,  but  Paul  was 
suffered  to  dwell  by  himself  with  a  soldier  that  kept 
him,  and  after  three  days  Paul  called  the  chief  of  the 
Jews  together,  and  explained  to  them  his  cause  and 
why  he  had  appealed  to  Caesar.  They  replied  to  him, 
"  We  desire  to  hear  what  thou  thinkest :  for  as  concern- 
ing this  sect  we  know  that  everywhere  it  is  spoken 
against."  And  he  appointed  a  day ;  there  came  many 
to  him,  unto  his  lodging,  to  whom  he  explained  the 
kingdom  of  God,  persuading  them  concerning  Jesus 
both  out  of  the  Law  of  Moses  and  out  of  the  Prophets, 
from  morning  until  evening.  And  some  believed  the 
things  which  were  spoken  and  some  believed  not. 
And  Paul  dwelt  two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired 
house,  and  received  all  that  came  unto  him,  preaching 
the  kingdom  of  God,  and  teaching  those  things  which 
concern  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  with  all  confidence,  no 
man  forbidding  him. 

END  OF  THE  SCRIPTURE  NARRATIVE. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  4$ 


CHAPTER  IV. 


PAUL  S    WRITINGS. 


St.  Paul  wrote  thirteen  Epistles.*  The  Epistle  to 
the  Romansf  is  the  first  in  order,  as  published  in  our 
Bibles.  This  Epistle  was  written  from  Corinth,  during 
his  second  residence  in  that  city.  Paul  had  never  been 
at  Rome,  when  he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
During  his  first  visit  to  Corinth,  Paul  had  formed  an 
intimate  connection  with  Roman  Christians,  resident  at 
Corinth  and  at  Cenchrea,  its  port ;  these  had  been  ban- 
ished by  Claudius  from  Rome,  together  with  many 
Jews.  The  greater  part  of  the  Christian  exiles  seem 
to  have  taken  refuge  with  Aquila  and  Priscilla.  Paul 
was  in  Corinth  "a  year  and  six  months,"  testifying  in 
the  synagogue  every  Sabbath,  that  Jesus  was  Christ. 
When  Claudius  was  dead,  the  Jews  and  Christians 
naturally  crept  back  to  their  old  homes.  The  Chris- 
tians from  Corinth  would  convey  to  their  brethren  at 
Rome  the  more  perfect  knowledge  of  Christianity 
taught  them  by  Paul,  during  their  banishment  at  Cor- 
inth.     In  writing  to  these  Roman  Christians  afterwards, 

*VVe  have  said  Paul  wrote  thirteen  Epistles.  Some  learned  men 
now  think  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  not  written  by  Paul. 
Some  attribute  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  to  Apollos. 

t  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  says  Luther,  is  the  masterpiece  of 
the  New  Testament.  Coleridge  says,  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  the 
most  profound  work  in  existence.  Justification  by  Faith  is  the  subject 
of  this  Epistle. 


46  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.    " 

he  says  to  them,  "Your  faith  is  spoken  of  throughout 
the  world."  The  history  of  the  Roman  community, 
says  Milman,  is  remarkable.  It  grew  up  in  silence, 
founded  by  some  unknown  teachers,  probably  by  those 
"strangers  from  Rome"  who  were  in  Jerusalem  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  at  the  first  publication  of  Christi- 
anity by  the  Apostles.  During  the  reign  of  Claudius 
Christianity  had  made  such  progress  as  to  excite  tu- 
mults and  dissensions  among  the  Jewish  population  of 
Rome ;  the  attention  of  the  government  was  attracted 
and  both  parties  expelled  from  the  city.  The  founda- 
tion of  the  Christian  Church  at  Rome  by  either  Peter 
or  Paul  is  utterly  irreconcilable  With  history.  The 
first  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  proves  con- 
clusively that  the  foundation  of  this  church  was  long 
previous  to  his  (Paul's)  visit  to  the  Western  metropolis. 
Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  written,  it  is  sup- 
posed, during  his  first  visit  to  Ephesus.  Galatia  had 
derived  its  name  from  the  settlement  of  the  Gauls  in 
this  country.  There  were,  probably,  great  numbers  of 
Jews  in  this  district.  It  is  very  evident  from  what  we 
have  seen  of  the  question  agitated  at  the  first  council 
of  Jerusalem,  that  there  was  a  conflict  among  the  early 
Christians  with  regard  to  Judaism,  or  the  ceremonial 
rites  prescribed  by  the  Law  of  Moses.  Was  the  cum- 
brous franicwork  of  Mosaic  observances  still  to  be 
observed  by  the  Christian  Church  ?  Many  of  the 
Gentile  converts  were  ready  to  submit  to  the  faith 
of  Christ,  with  its  exquisite  morality ;  but  could  they 
submit  to  the  unmeaning  regulations  of  diet,  dress  and 
manners  required  by  the  Jewish  ritual  ?  Chris- 
tianity   had    now    advance^    beyond    the   Jewish    pop- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  47 

ulation,  and  these  questions  were  strongly  agitated. 
To  meet  these  difficulties,  St.  Paul  seems  to  have 
written  the  celebrated  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  also  his 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  St.  Paul  teaches  in  these 
Epistles  that  the  ceremonial  \.z.\\  of  Moses  was  annulled, 
that  it  was  a  temporary  institution,  designed  during  a 
barbarous  age  to  keep  alive  the  principles  of  true  re- 
ligion. It  is  certain  that  the  first  generation  of  Chris- 
tians had  passed  away  before  many  Jewish  converts  to 
Christianity  had  emancipated  themselves  from  the  yoke 
of  Jewish  observances.  For  a  time  it  is  believed  that 
tivo  Sabbaths  were  kept.  As  Christianity  advanced, 
taking  in  a  larger  proportion  of  the  Gentiles  than  of 
those  of  Jewish  descent,  the  synagogue  and  church 
became  more  distinct.  Judaism  gradually  died  away 
within  the  Christian  pale.  A  latent  Judaism  has  at 
certain  periods  lurked  within  the  Church  and  mani- 
fested itself.  At  Corinth  St.  Paul  wrote  the  Epistles 
to  the  Thessalonians.  St.  Paul  is  said  to  have  writ- 
ten, when  he  lived  at  Rome  in  his  own  hired  house, 
the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  one  to  the  Colossians, 
and  to  the  Philippians.  He  also  wrote  two  letters  to 
Timothy,  who  is  regarded  as  the  first  Bishop  of  Ephe- 
sus  The  first  of  these  letters  to  Timothy  was  written 
from  Laodicea,  the  second  from  Rome,  when  Paul  was 
brought  before  Nero  a  second  time.  The  Epistle  to 
Titus  was  written  from  Nicopolis.  The  two  Epistles 
to  the  Corinthians  were  written  from  Philippi  in  Mace- 
donia. At  the  end  of  the  two  years'  sojourn  of  Paul  in 
Rome,  he  is  supposed  to  have  left  the  city  for  a  time. 
The  year  after  his  departure  is  noted  as  the  beginning 
of  the  Neronian  persecution  in  the  Annals  of  Rome. 
The  Christians  were  accused  of  burning  the  city,   and 


48  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

were  subjected  to  terrible  tortures.  New  punishments 
were  invented.  Son>e  of  the  Christians,  of  whom  the 
world  was  not  worthy,  were  sewed  up  in  skins  of  beasts 
and  covered  with  melted  pitch  and  burned  by  a  slow 
fire.  These  horrible  details  of  the  Neronian  persecu- 
tion are  mentioned  by  the  historians  of  that  day.  Taci- 
tus says,  Nero,  in  order  to  divert  a  suspicion  from  him- 
self, resolved  to  substitute  in  his  place  some  fictitious 
criminals.  With  this  view  he  inflicted  horrible  tortures 
on  those  men  who,  under  the  appellation  of  Christians, 
were  already  branded  with  infamy.  "These  derived 
their  name  from  Christ,  who  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius, 
suffered  death  under  Pilate  the  Procurator,"  a.  d.  66. 
Tradition  assigns  to  the  last  year  of  Nero  the  martyr- 
dom of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.*  The  martyrdom  of 
Peter  rests  altogether  upon  unauthoritative  testimony, 
tliat  of  St.  Paul  upon  the  authentic  record  of  the  second 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  when  St.  Paul  says,  "I  am  ready 
to  be  offered  and  the  time  of  my  departure  is  at  hand." 
When  Paul  wrote  this,  it  is  said  that  the  government 
of  Rome  had  been  entrusted  to  Helias,  a  freedman  of 
Nero.  The  tradition  is  that  Paul,  as  a  Roman  citizen, 
was  beheaded,  not  by  the  order  of  Nero,  but  by  the 
sentence  of  the  Governor.  When  Rome  was  burned, 
all  the  monuments  of  Grecian  art  and  of  Roman  brayery 
were  involved  in  one  common  destruction — the  trophies 
of  the  Punic  and  Gallic  wars,  the  most  holy  temples, 
the  most  splendid  palaces.  The  gardens  and  circus  of 
Nero,  on  the  Vatican,  were  polluted,  says  Gibbon,  with 
the  blood  of  the  first  Christians.  Near  the  same  spot 
a  Christian  Temple   now  stands,    which  far  surpasses 


•Tradition  says  that  the  soldiers  and  executioners  who  carried  him 
to  his  execution,  were  converted  by  him  ;  but  this  may  be  romance. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  49 

the  ancient  glories  of  the  capitol.  The  fame  of  St. 
Peter  has  ecHpsed  that  of  St.  Paul  in  the  Eternal  City. 
The  most  splendid  temple  erected  by  Christian  zeal 
bears  the  name  of  St.  Peter.  It  is  most  remarkable 
that  in  no  part  of  the  Scripture  record,  is  there  any 
personal  history  of  St.  Peter  as  connected  with  the 
Western  Churches.  Until  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul, 
St.  Peter  was  the  most  eminent  and  prominent  of  the 
teachers  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  He  was  the  chief 
speaker  on  the  day  of  Pentecost ;  he  first  opened  the 
door  of  admission  to  Cornelius,  and  proclaimed  that 
the  partition  wall  was  broken  down  between  Jew  and 
Gentile.  Peter  wrote  two  Epistles — they  are  written 
apparently  from  Babylonia.  "The  church  which  is  at 
Babylon  saluteth  you."  Lightfoot,  learned  in  Jewish 
antiquities,  maintains  that  Peter  lived  and  died  in  Baby- 
lonia. It  is  certain  that  large  numbers  of  Jews  lived  in 
Babylonia,  and  it  is  believed  that,  as  the  Apostle  of 
the  circumcision,  he  went  thither  to  preach  the  Gospel 
to  the  Jews  in  that  region.  There  is  no  record  or  con- 
temporary evidence  that  Peter  ever  was  at  Rome. 
But  it  is  confidently  believed  that  there  were  two  par- 
ties, both  at  Rome  and  Corinth.  The  Petrine  party 
was  a  Judaizing  church,  and  the  Pauline  a  Hellenistic 
church.  Irenaeus,  Dionysius  and  Epiphanius  maintain 
the  tradition  that  Peter  had  a  residence  at  Rome  and 
that  he  suffered  martyrdom  there  by  crucifixion. 

Palestine  seems  to  have  been  assigned  to  James  the 
Just,  he  who  gave  his  sentence  at  the  council  of  Jerusa- 
lem to  abolish  circumcision.  Paul  escaped  the  ven- 
geance of  the  Sanhedrim,  but  they  wreaked  their  ven- 
geance on  one  far  less  obnoxious  to  the  Jews  generally. 
The  head  of  the  Christian  community  at  Jerusalem  was 


50  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

James.  On  the  death  of  Festus,  the  Roman  governor, 
and  before  the  arrival  of  Albinus  as  governor,  Annas, 
a  fierce  Sadducaic,  High  Priest,  seized  the  opportunity 
of  the  suspension  of  the  Roman  Power,  to  reassert  the 
power  of  the  Sanhedrim  over  Hfe  and  death.  Many 
were  executed  by  Annas,  by  stoning,  and  James,  the 
head  of  the  community,  commonly  called  the  Bishop 
oi  Jerusalem  (the  mother  church),  suffered  martyrdom. 
Tradition  says  James  was  thrown  from  the  walls  of  the 
temple.  This  persecution  of  Annas  rests  on  the  author- 
ity of  Josephus,  who  says  Annas  put  them  to  death  on 
account  of  their  religion.  Who  but  Christians  could  have 
been  obnoxious  to  capital  punishment  ?  The  power 
to  persecute  by  the  Jewish  hierarchy  was  now  drawing 
to  a  close.  The  time  was  come  when  all  the  righteous 
blood  that  had  been  shed  by  the  rebellious  and  fanatical 
Jewish  leaders  should  be  avenged  on  that  generation. 

Titus,  the  son  of  Vespasian,  was  making  ready,  in 
marshalling  his  hosts,  to  attack  the  sacred  city,  over 
whose  calamities  the  Saviour  of  the  world  had  wept. 
In  the  year  70,  dating  from  the  birth  of  Jesus,  Jeru- 
salem was  trodden  under  foot  by  the  Roman  armies, 
under  the  command  of  Titus,  the  eldest  son  of  Ves- 
pasian, then  the  reigning  Emperor  of  Rome  and  of 
the  civilized  world.  The  beautiful  temple,  built  by  the- 
returning  captives  from  Babylon  in  530  b.  c,  and 
afterwards  richly  embellished  by  Herod  the  Great,  was 
leveled  with  the  ground.  A  burning  taper  in  the  hands 
of  a  reckless  Roman  soldier,  accomplished  the  predic- 
tion of  our  Lord.  The  Christians  at  Jerusalem  re- 
moved to  Pella,  a  neighboring  city,  so  soon  as  the  fated 
city  became  "encompassed  with  armies."  They  were 
therefore    not    involved   in  the  miseries  of  the  siege. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        5 1 

Many  Jews,  it  is  said,  of  wealth  and  distinction,  also 
fled  to  the  same  locality.  Domitian  succeeded  to  his 
brother  Titus  after  a  short  reign.  A  proconsul  of  Asia, 
during  the  reign  of  this  tyrant,  banished  St.  John,  the 
beloved  disciple,  to  the  Isle  of  Patmos.  In  this  island 
tradition  places  his  writing  the  Apocalypse,  as  well  as 
his  own  word  :  "I  John,  who  also  am  your  brother 
and  companion  in  tribulation  and  in  the  kingdom  and 
patience  of  Jesus  Christ,  was  in  the  Isle  that  is  called 
Patmos,  for  the  Word  of  God,  and  for  the  testimony  of 
Jesus  Christ."  John  returned  to  Ephesus,  and  probably 
ended  his  days  in  that  populous  and  commercial  city, 
Ephesus  was  the  scene  of  the  first  collision  between 
Orientalism  and  Christianity.  Ephesus  was  the  third 
capital  of  Christianity,  In  this  city  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John  was  written.  .  This  Gospel  was  not  written,  says 
Milman,  against  any  peculiar  sect  or  individual,  but  to 
arrest  the  spirit  of  Orientalism.  '  'Ephesus, "  says  Farrar, 
"witnessed  the  full  development  and  the  final  amalgam- 
ation of  its  elements  in  the  work  of  John,  the  Apostle  of 
Love."  Christianity  was  born  at  Jerusalem  in  the  cradle 
of  Judaism ;  it  was  the  mother  Church.  Antioch  was 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Church  of  the  Gentiles. 
When  John  wrote  his  Gospel  a  spirit  of  Orientalism 
seemed  to  threaten  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  Christi- 
anity. While  St,  John  appropriates  the  term  Logos  or 
Word  Q>{  God  to  the  divine  authority  of  Christianity, 
and  even  adopts  some  of  the  imagery  from  the  hypothe- 
sis of  conflicting  light  and  darkness,  he  entirely  rejects 
thespeculati  on  of  the  Gnostics  on  the  formation  of 
the  world.  Though  in  the  writings  of  John  (Milman, 
our  author,  continues),  there  is  something  of  a  mystic 
tone  when  he  speaks  of  the  union  of  the  soul  with  the 


52        ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

Deity ;  it  is  a  union  made  by  the  aspiration  of  the  pious 
heart  and  by  the  union  of  pure  and  holy  love  with  the 
Deity,  It  requires  not,  as  the  Gnostics  do,  abstraction 
from  matter,  but  from*  sin,  from  hatred  and  from  all 
fierce  and  corrupting  passions. 

The  Church  that  Paul  founded  at  Ephesus  (of  which 
Timothy  is  reputed  to  be  the  successor  of  St.  Paul  as 
Bishop)  became  a  Christian  metropolis  of  a  line  of 
Bishops,  and  there,  four  centuries  afterward,  was  held  a 
great  Ecumenical  Council,  which  deposed  Nestorius, 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  But  now  for  centu- 
ries its  candlestick  has  been  removed. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  St.  John  wrote  his  Gospel 
to  refute  the  heresies  of  Cerinthus,  a  famous  Gnostic 
of  Ephesus.  It  is  very  certain  from  the  contents  of 
the  Gospel  itself,  that  it  was  written  to  supply  several 
interesting  incidents  in  the  life  of  Christ  omitted  by 
the  other  three  Evangelists,  and  to  give  to  his  disciples 
in  every  age,  those  last  words  of  comfort  and  instruction 
of  the  Master,  as  contained  in  the  14th,  15th  and  i6th 
chapters  of  St.  John's  Gospel.  The  conflict  with  Gnos- 
ticism seems  to  have  commenced  before  the  death  of 
St.  John,  Simon  Magus,  mentioned  in  the  Acts  in  a 
conflict  with  St.  Peter,  was  an  Orientalist  or  Gnostic, 
calling  himself  "the  Power  of  God."  It  is  not  within 
the  scope  of  our  ability  or  purpose,  in  this  abridged  his- 
tory of  the  Church,  to  enter  into  the  depths  of  the  shad- 
owy and  fanciful  doctrines  of  the  Gnostics.  They  called 
themselves  Christians,  yet  they  did  not  limit  their  creed 
to  the  teachings  of  our  Lord  as  contained  in  the  four 
Gospels,  and  in  the  Epistles  of  his  Apostles  :  but  they 
multiplied  books,  in  which  they  sought  to  adapt  their 
respective  tenets  to  the  teaching  of  Christ — not  regard- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  53 

ing  or  fearing  the  denunciation  of  the  Apocalypse : 
"If  any  man,  shall  add  unto  these  things,  God  shall 
add  unto  him  the  plagues  that  are  written  in  this  book  : 
' '  and  if  any  man  shall  take  away  from  the  words  of 
the  book  of  this  prophecy,  God  shall  take  away  his 
part  out  of  the  Book  of  Life. "  They,  the  Gnostics,  were 
divided  by  their  differing  opinions  into  many  sects. 
They  flourished  for  the  most  part  in  the  second  century, 
but  were  partially  suppressed  in  the  third  century. 
The  most  formidable  sect  of  the  Gnostics  in  the  latter 
part  of  their  history,  were  the  Manicheans.  They  were 
found  chiefly  in  Egypt  and  in  Asia,  and  sometimes  dis- 
tributed in  the  Western  Provinces.  They  blended  with 
the  faith  of  Christ  some  tenets  of  oriental  philosophy, 
together  with  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.  They  rejected 
the  Old  Testament.  They  dwelt  on  the  malignity  of 
matter,  the  existence  of  two  principles,  and  a  mysteri- 
ous hierarchy  in  the  invisible  world.  They  regarded 
Christ  as  an  emanation  from  God,  but  relieved  Christ 
from  the  degradation  of  a  human  birth,  by  supposing 
that  the  Christ  descended  on  the  Man  Jesus  at  his 
baptism  ;  and  from  the  ignominy  of  a  mortal  death,  by 
making  him  reascend  before  that  crisis.  It  was  in  the 
view  of  the  Gnostic,  pollution  and  degradation  to  the 
pure  and  elementary  spirit,  to  mingle  with  or  exercise 
the  remotest  influence  over  the  material  world..  The 
creation  therefore  of  this  visible  world  was  not  made 
by  the  great  God,  who  dwelt  in  distance  unapproach- 
able, but  by  a  secondary  and  hostile  deity.  God  saw 
every  thing  that  he  had  made,  and  behold  it  was  very 
good.  Almost  all  the  creeds  of  the  early  churches 
begin  with  a  confession  of  Faith  in  God,  the  Father 
Almighty,    Maker  of  Heaven    and   Earth.      With  the 


54        ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

defense  of  this/undamental  doctrine,  Irenseus  opens  his 
refutation  of  the  Gnostic  heresies,  saying  in  the  language 
of  Justin  Martyr,  that  he  could  not  have  believed  Christ 
himself,  if  he  had  announced  any  other  God  than  the 
Creator  whose  work  is  declared  in  the  first  chapter  of 
the  Bible.  The  Church  inherited  from  Judaism  the 
doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God,  the  just  and  holy  Creator 
and  upholder  of  all  things,  and  vindicated  it  against  the 
polytheism  of  the  pagans,  but  more  especially  against 
the  dualism  of  the  Gnostics,  who  supposed  matter  co- 
eternal  with  God  and  ascribed  the  creation  of  our 
world  to  an  inferior  deity  or  an  intermediate  Demiurge. 
The  hymns  of  the  Gnostics  are  said  to  have  exercised 
much  power  over  the  churches  of  Syria.  Their  poetry 
was  sung  in  the  churches  of  Syria,  until  it  was  expelled 
by  more  orthodox  psalmody.  We  have  already  spoken 
of  the  martyrdoms  of  Peter  and  Paul  at  Rome,  of  the 
death  of  James  the  Just  at  Jerusalem  by  violence  in 
the  persecution  of  Annas,  and  of  the  death  of  St.  John 
at  Ephesus ;  of  the  fate  of  the  other  evangelists  and 
Apostles,  little  is  known  with  certainty.  Legend  has 
been  busy  in  assigning  their  fields  of  labor,  also  the 
manner  of  their  deaths.  It  is  certain  that  the  disciples 
of  our  Lord  were  scattered  abroad,  busy  with  the  Mas- 
ter's work,  but  to  what  particular  country  their  labors 
were  .directed,  and  where  they  met  their  last  enemy, 
death,  is  not  certain.  Their  good  works  followed 
them.  Before  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  a.  d.  280,  the 
faith  of  Christ  had  been  preached  in  every  province 
and  large  city  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  highways, 
which  had  been  constructed  for  the  use  of  the  legions, 
opened  an  easy  passage  for  the  Christian  mission- 
aries from  Damascus  to  Corinth,  and  from  Italy  to  the 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  55 

extremity  of  Spain  and  Britain.  St.  Peter,  in  writing 
from  Chaldea,  mentions  the  presence  of  Mark ;  Paul 
indicates  in  his  letters  to  Timothy  and  Titus,  their  par- 
ticular charge.  Luke  we  know  was  the  companion  of 
St.  Paul  in  his  journeyings,  and  was  busy  in  writing 
the  Gospel  that  bears  his  name,  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  But  of  Matthew  and  Bartholomew,  and 
Andrew  and  the  rest,  we  know  nothing  of  their  latter 
days  except  from  uncertain  traditionary  legends.  It  is 
quite  certain  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  the  Gospel  that 
bears  his  name,  first  in  Hebrew.  Papias,  the  contempo- 
rary of  the  Apostle  St.  John,  says  positively  that 
Matthew  had  written  the  discourses  of  Jesus  Christ  in 
Hebrew,  and  that  each  interpreted  them  as  he  could. 
This  Hebrew  was  the  Syro-Chaldaic  dialect,  as  is  proved 
by  many  words  which  he  used,  and  which  the  Evangel- 
ists have  translated.  St.  Paul,  addressing  the  Jews, 
used  the  same  language,  in  Acts  xxi.  40,  and  in  other 
places.  The  Greek  version  of  Matthew  appears  to  have 
been  made  in  the  time  of  the  Apostles,  as  St.  Jerome 
and  St.  Augustine  both  affirm.  This  subject  has  been 
elaborately  discussed,  and  some  modern  critics  have 
asserted  its  Greek  original,  but  the  general  opinion  is 
against  them. 


56  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  V. 

EXTENT    OF    THE  CHURCH    IN    THE    SECOND    CENTURY. 

There  is  no  certain  evidence,  says  Paley,  where  some 
of  the  apostles  and  teachers  of  the.gospel  passed  their 
later  years,  and  where  and  how  they  closed  their  mor- 
tal career ;  but  from  the  zvork  they  accomplished,  it  is 
very  certain  that  the  original  witnesses  of  the  miracles 
of  our  Lord  passed  their  lives  in  labors,  dangers  and 
sufferings  voluntarily  undergone  in  attestation  of  the 
accounts  they  delivered  and  solely  in  consequence  of 
their  belief  of  these  accounts  ;  and  that  they  submitted 
also  from  the  same  motives  to  new  rides  of  conduct.  A 
more  patient  investigator,  or  one  more  learned  than 
Paley  in  the  lore  of  early  primitive  Christianity,  can  not 
be  found.  As  a  proof  of  the  earnest  work  of  the 
apostles  and  Christian  teachers,  it  is  asserted  that  in  a. 
D.  150,  about  the  middle  of  the  ^second  century, 
the  number  of  professed  Christians  amounted  to  one- 
tenth  of  the  subjects  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Asia  was 
the  cradle  of  Christianity,  as  it  was  of  civilization.  Yet 
Christianity  was  a  Greek  religion  for  three  centuries. 
Justin  Martyr,  who  lived  in  the  second  century,  says 
there  is  no  people,  Greek  or  barbarian,  however  ig- 
norant of  arts  and  agriculture  whether,  they  live  in 
tents  or  wander  about  in  covered  wagons — among  whom 
prayers  and  thanksgivings  are  not  said  and  offered  to 
the  Father  and  Creator  of  all  things,  in  the  name  of  the 
crucified  Jesus. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        5/ 

The  apostles  themselves  had  spread  the  gospel  of 
Christ  over  Palestine,  Syria  and  Asia  Minor.  Chris- 
tianity reached  Egypt  as  early  as  the  apostolic  age. 
Mark  the  Evangelist  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Church 
in  Alexandria,  the  metropolis  of  commerce  and  of  ori- 
ental culture.  Clement  and  Origen  taught  in  the 
schools  of  Egypt.  The  Christian  religion  had  its  origin 
among  a  Syrian  people.  Jesus  spoke  an  Aramaic  dia- 
lect ;  it  was  the  popular  language  of  Jerusalem  and 
Galilee,  yet  nearly  all  the  primal  records  were  written 
in  Greek.  Christianity  from  the  beginning  was  a  Greek 
religion.  l"he  Jews,  the  first  converts  to  Christ, 
used  the  Greek  language  in  their  commerce  with  other 
countries,  and  in  their  intercourse  with  foreign  nations. 
The  most  flourishing  churches  were  in  Greek  cities. 
The  Syriac,  or  Aramaic,  was  doubtless  spoken  by  vast 
numbers  of  disciples,  in  Syrian  provinces.  It  spread 
eastward,  beyond  the  Euphrates,  where  Greek  ceased 
to  be  the  common  tongue.  But  the  Greek  language 
was  the  language  of  the  Church  for  more  than  three 
centuries.  The  Grecian  Churches  of  the  East,  such 
as  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Ephesus,  were  held  together 
by  common  creeds,  common  usages,  common  sympa- 
thies. The  hierarchy  were  everywhere  on  the  same 
level.  The  Bishop  of  each  city  in  theory  had  the 
same  power.  The  metropolitan  and  patriarchate  were  of 
much  later  date.  Greek  Christianity  was  inquisitive 
and  speculative.  Great  questions,  as  the  origin  of  evil, 
the  nature  of  the  deity,  the  formation  of  worlds,  were 
agitated  among  them.  The  Greeks  had  many  great 
writers,  such  as  Athanasius,  Basil,  the  Gregories,  but 
they  had  few  worthy  successors.  Splendid  eloquence 
seemed  to  e.xpire  on  the  lips  of  Chrysostom.  Tertul- 
5 


58  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Han  was  the  first  Latin  writer  that  commanded  the  pub- 
lic ear.  Africa,  not  Rome,  gave  birth  to  what  is  called 
Latin  Christianity.  Eusebius  mentions  as  a  strange 
fact,  that  Cyprian,  Bishop  of  Carthage,  wrote  to  the 
Asiatic  Bishops  in  Latin.  None  of  the  Roman 
Bishops,  down  to  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  were 
master  minds.  The  Church  of  the  capital  could  not 
but  assume  somewhat  of  the  dignity  of  the  capital, 
but  Rome  had  no  Origen,  no  Athanasius,  no  Cyprian, 
no  Ambrose,  no  Augustine,  no  Jerome,  no  Chrysostom. 
When  our  Saviour  issued  the  command,  "Go  ye  into 
all  the  world,"  etc.,  he  spoke  to  his  eleven  apostles  ; 
one  of  the  first  acts  of  these  apostles  was  to  elect  and 
consecrate  another  apostle  in  the  place  of  Judas,  giv- 
ing to  him  like  authority  with  themselves.  Shortly 
after  they  appoint  other  officers,  called  deacons,  with 
limited  powers.  Two  of  these  are  distinguished  for 
their  zeal  in  preaching — Stephen  and  Philip.  Stephen  is 
regarded  as  the  first  Christian  martyr.  Philip  baptized 
many  converts  in  Samaria,  but  Peter  and  John  came 
down  (Acts  viii.)  to  that  city  to  lay  their  hands  on  the 
converts  taught  and  baptized  by  Philip.  Paul  was 
made  an  Apostle  by  the  Saviour  himself  (L  Tim.  i.  12) ; 
he  was  baptized  by  Ananias.  Paul  was  afterwards 
brought  to  the  apostles  by  Barnabas,  and  his  miracu- 
lous conversion  and  ordination  declared  unto  them. 
Paul  ordained  Timothy  with  his  own  hands,  and  with 
the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  Presbytery.  Paul 
charges  Timothy  "to  lay  hands  suddenly  on  no  man," 
giving  him  also  directions  as  to  the  necessary  qualifi- 
cations for  Bishops  or  Elders,  and  for  Deacons,  He 
gives  similar  advice  to  Titus.  "  He  hands  the  torch 
of  truth   to   Timothy   and   Titus,    which    in    his    ozun 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  59 

grasp  had  never  been  dimmed  or  quenched,  nor  any 
faltering  amid  storms  of  persecution. "  Tradition  af- 
firms that  Timothy  was  Bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  Titus 
of  Crete,  according  to  our  modern  acceptation  of  the 
Word.  St.  John  also  writes  to  the  angels  of  the  seven 
Churches  of  Asia  these  angels  are  supposed  to  mean 
the  chief  ministers  of  those  Churches.  Few  points  in 
Christian  history  have  been  more  contested  than  the 
primitive  constitution  of  the  Christian  Churches ;  the 
evidence  is  chiefly  inferential.  Milman  says  the  whole 
of  Christianity,  when  it  emerges  from  the  obscurity  of 
the  first  century,  appears  uniformly  governed  by  sit- 
petiors  in  each  community  called  Bishops.  But  the 
origin  and  extent  of  this  superiority  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  Bishop  assumed  a  distinct  authority  above 
the  Presbyters,  is  among  the  difficult  questions  of 
Church  history.  ' '  No  society, "  says  Guizot,  ' '  can  exist 
without  a  government.  But  the  essence  of  government 
resides  not  in  compulsion.  The  right  of  compulsion  as- 
sumed by  the  Church  in  the  fifth  century  was  contrary 
to  the  spirit  of  the  religious  society,  and  to  the  primi- 
tive maxims  of  the  Church.  The  spirit  of  compulsion 
was  opposed  by  Hilary,  by  Ambrose  and  by  St.  Mar- 
tin. These  good  men  maintained  the  legitimate  liberty 
of  human  thought."  The  Christian  Church  in  its  ori- 
gin was  formed  round  an  individual.  The  apostle  or 
teacher  becomes  at  once  the  chief  religious  functionary. 
Oral  instruction  was  anterior  to  the  existence  of  any 
book,  or  any  inspired  record.  The  teacher,  while  he 
remained,  would  be  recognized  as  the  legitimate  head 
of  the  Christian  society.  When  Paul  left  Miletus  for 
the  last  time,  he  sent  for  ' '  the  Elders  of  the  Church 
from  Ephesus,"  where  he  had  abode  three  years.     Paul 


60  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

gives  to  the  Elders,  or  overseers,  of  the  Church  of  God 
the  most  solemn  admonitions.  There  seems  to  have  been 
already  at  Ephesus  an  organized  government.  Paul 
represented  the  Apostle  or  Bishop,  as  iht  first  order  was 
called  after  the  days  of  the  apostles.  The  second  order 
in  the  New  Testament  are  called  alternately.  Elders, 
Bishops  and  Presbyters.  The  third  order  are  called 
Deacons.  Timothy,  as  Paul's  successor,  was  Bishop  of 
Ephesus.  Two  questions  have  arisen  in  regard  to 
the  Episcopate.  Was  the  Episcopate  directly  of  apos- 
tolic origin,  as  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Anglicans,  the 
Moravians,  the  Swedish  Lutherans,  and  the  Greek  Church 
maintain;  or  did  it  arise,  as  Presbyterians  attest,  from 
the  Presidency  of  the  congregational  Presbytery  ? 
Dean  Stanley,  the  present  head  of  the  Westminster, 
says :  "  No  cxistmg  Church  can  find  an  exact  pattern  of 
the  form  of  Church  government  in  the  earliest  times." 
He  says  that  "it  is  as  sure  that  nothing  like  modern 
Episcopacy  existed  before  the  close  of  the  first  century, 
as  it  is  certain  that  no  Presbyterianism  existed  after  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century."  Timothy,  Titus, 
Silas,  Epaphroditus,  Mark,  and  Luke  were  at  first 
itinerant  evangelists  and  legates  of  the  apostles.  After- 
wards, tradition  assigns  distinct  bishoprics  to  them. 
St.  John  writes  to  the  angels  of  the  seven  churches  of 
Asia.  We  understand  these  to  mean  the  superior  min- 
ister or  bishop  of  each  of  those  cities,  and  it  indicates 
the  shaping  of  the  church  government  in  the  days  of 
St.  John.  Four  of  the  distinguished  fathers  say  that 
St.  John  ordained  Polycarp  bishop  of  Smyrna,  to 
whom  Irenaeus  was  personally  known.  The  uncon- 
tested spread  of  the  episcopate  in  the  second  century 
can  not  be  explained  without  the  sanction  of  apostolic 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST,  6 1 

authority.  An  uninterrupted  line  of  bishops  is  traced 
by  ecclesiastical  historians  to  the  apostles,  without  a 
murmur  of  remonstrance.  No  schism,  no  breach  of 
Christian  unity,  followed.  St.  Jerome,  quoted  by 
Hooker,  assigns  the  origin  of  episcopacy  to  the  dis- 
sensions of  the  Church,  which  required  strong  exercise 
of  authority,  especially  in  Corinth. 

In  St.  Paul's  time  three  parties  seem  to  have  ex- 
isted :  the  Pauline,  Petrine,  and  Apolline.  Corinth, 
says  Milman,  was  probably  the  last  Christian  com- 
munity that  settled  down  under  the  episcopal  constitu- 
tion. In  primitive  episcopacy  there  was  no  sacerdotal 
idea  connected  with  the  word  presbyter  or  priest. 
They  (the  early  Christians)  adopted  the  word  priest  both 
from  Judaism  and  Paganism,  without  connecting  with  it 
an>  idea  of  sacrifice,  but  simply  denoting  him  who  was 
appointed  to  minister  in  holy  things,  to  preach  the 
Word,  and  to  dispense  the  sacraments.  They  recog- 
nized but  one  priest  or  mediator  between  earth  and 
heaven,  the  man  Christ  Jesus.  As  Christianity  was  a 
new  religion,  the  Church  was  obliged  to  give  to  old 
words  a  new  meaning.  They  adopted  the  word 
sacrament,  meaning  oath,  which  connects  itself  with 
our  most  holy  mysteries.  The  primitive  Episcopal 
system  must  by  no  means  be  confounded  with  the 
later  hierarchy.  Though  the  bishops  were  equal  in 
their  dignity  and  powers  as  successors  of  the  apostles, 
they  gradually  fell  into  different  ranks,  according  to 
the  political  and  ecclesiastical  importance  of  the  dis- 
tricts in  which  they  resided.  Jerusalem,  Antioch, 
Ephesus,  Corinth  and  Rome,  were  regarded  as  the 
mother  Churches.  In  the  time  of  Irenaeus  and  Tertul- 
lian  they  were  regarded  as  the  chief  bearers  of  the  pure 


62  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Church  tradition.  To  the  bishop  of  Antioch  fell  all 
Syria  as  his  metropolitan  district ;  to  the  bishop  of 
Alexandria  all  Egypt.  In  these  metropolitan  divisions 
we  have  the  germs  of  the  patriarchate  of  the  Greek 
church.  To  the  bishop  of  Rome  central  and  lower 
Italy. 

Whence  came  the  precedence  of  the  Church  of 
Rome?  The  great  political  preeminence  of  Rome  as 
the  capital  and  mistress  of  the  world  doubtless  gave 
potential  influence  to  the  See  of  Rome.  St.  Paul 
honored  the  Romans  with  his  longest  and  most  impor- 
tant epistle.  The  executive  wisdom  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  in  its  management  of  three  questions,  that 
greatly  agitated  the  early  Church,  redounded  much 
to  its  credit.  These  questions  were  :  the  proper  time 
for  the  observance  of  Easter,  heretical  baptism,  and 
penitential  discipline. 

In  A.  D.  I02,  Clement  was  bishop  of  Rome  ;  he 
writes  a  letter  to  the  bishop  of  Corinth  at  this  time,  full 
of  exhortations  to  love,  unity  and  humility.  This 
epistle  was  not  sent  in  the  name  of  the  bishop,  but  in 
the  name  of  the  congregation  ;  not  in  authority,  but  in 
love.  The  authority  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  was  that 
of  influence,  not  power,  in  the  second  century.  The 
person  most  eminent  for  piety  and  'wisdom  was  elected 
to  the  bishopric  by  acclamation,  which  was  one  of  dan- 
ger as  well  as  distinction.  Episcopal  government,  so 
long  as  it  remained  unleavened  by  worldly  passions  and 
interests,  was  essentially  popular. 

The  office  of  a  bishop  in  times  of  persecution  be- 
came a  post  of  great  danger.  Jesus  had  predicted  to 
his  disciples  persecution  and  sorrow.  "The  time  will 
come   when   he   who   killeth   you,  will  think  that   he 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  63 

doeth  God  serv^ice. "  It  might  have  been  expected,  that 
the  Jews  would  persecute  the  Christians,  as  they  were 
in  the  beginning  a  secession  from  their  synagogues  but 
that  the  pagans  should  become  persecutors  on  account 
of  religion  could  not  be  anticipated,  when  the  indifferent- 
ism  of  polytheism  is  considered.  A  thousand  different 
forms  of  religion  existed,  without  molestation,  in  the 
great  cities  of  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  especially  in  Rome. 
The  Jews  at  different  times  suffered  dreadfully  from  the 
Romans,  on  account  of  their  impatience  of  a  foreign 
government ;  from  rebellions  and  insurrections,  but  not 
on  account  of  their  religion.  They  were  taught  by  the 
law  of  Moses  to  treat  the  stranger  with  courtesy,  and 
to  treat  him  hospitably.  They  had  been  persecutors  of 
their  own  people,  when  they  had  opposed  their  wicked 
practices ;  their  kings  had  persecuted  the  prophets  and 
other  good  men,  and  their  hierarchy  had  now  filled  up 
the  measure  of  their  iniquity,  by  crucifying  their  King 
and  Saviour.  Yet  they  lived  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  they  had  their  synagogues  in  almost  every  city, 
but  they  were  undisturbed  by  the  ruling  powers.  Then 
why  should  so  innocent  a  people  as  the  primitive 
Christians  be  persecuted  —  so  unspotted  in  their 
morals,  so  gentle  in  their  behaviour  ?  Jesus  knew  what 
was  in  man,  and  he  foresaw  the  circumstances  that 
would  arise.  He  foretold  also  a  feeling  of  "shame," 
that  to  the  present  hour,  has  turned  away  many  a 
worldly,  timid  heart  from  a  confession  of  the  "Crucified 
One."  Our  Lord  knew  the  jealousy  that  would  arise 
from  the  invasive  and  uncompromising  spirit  of  Christ- 
ianity. The  Jews  cared  little  for  proselytes,  but  the 
Christian  was  filled  with  love  for  the  souls  of  men,  and 
believed  there  was  no  other  name  given  among  men  by 


64  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

which  he  could  be  saved,  but  the  name  of  Christ. 
He  constantly  remembered  the  command  of  the  great 
Captain,  "  Go  ye  into  all  the  world,  and  preach  the 
Gospel  to  every  creature,"  and  "Therefore  I  come  not 
to  send  peace  upon  earth,  but  a  sword." 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  persecutions  of  Nero 
and  Domitian.  Of  the  latter  it  is  said  that  he  dis- 
covered the  new  religioji  had  entered  his  own  family  in 
the  persons  of  two  cousins.  Suddenly  these  harmless 
kinsmen  were  arraigned  on  the  charge  of  atheism  and 
Jewish  manners — they  were  banished  and  afterwards  put 
to  death. 

The  third  persecution  was  in  the  reign  of  Trajan. 
With  the  second  century  came  another  race  of  emper- 
ors, those  that  are  known  in  history  as  the  five  good 
emperors.  Nerva  was  the  first  of  these.  Adrian, 
Trajan,  and  the  Antonines  were  men  of  larger  minds 
than  their  predecessors.  They  reigned  not  now,  as  the 
Caesars,  as  monarchs  of  Rome,  but  as  sovereigns  of  the 
western  world,  which  had  gradually  coalesced  into  one 
majestic  and  harmonious  system  or  empire.  The  rapid 
progress  of  the  new  religion  did  not  escape  their  notice. 
These  emperors  were  occupied  with  the  internal  as  well 
the  external  affairs  of  their  empire.  The  younger  Pliny 
was  at  this  time  governor  of  Bithynia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
under  Trajan.  Christianity  had  advanced  with  great 
rapidity  in  the  northern  provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  I^ 
was  in  Bithynia  that  paganism  was  first  aroused  to  the 
fact  that  Christianity  was  undermining  her  authority. 
Complaints  were  brought  to  the  governor  that  "the 
temples  were  deserted  and  the  sacrifices  neglected." 
Then  ensued  the  memorable  correspondence  between 
Pliny  and   Trajan ;    it  is  the  most  valuable  record   of 


ANNALS   OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  '65 

Christianity  during  this  period.  It  presents  Paganism, 
claiming  the  alliance  of  power,  to  maintain  its  decaying 
influence  ;  Christianity  is  most  imperfectly  understood 
by  a  wise  and  polite  Pagan,  yet  still  with  nothing  to 
offend  his  moral  judgment,  "  except  their  contumacy 
and  their  repugnance  to  some  of  the  common  usages  of 
society."  But  this  contumacy  the  Pagans  thought 
must  be  punished. 


(^  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PLINY's    letters    to    TRAJAN. 

A.  D.  98. — Ignatius,  Irenasus,  Tertullian,  Polycarp. 
Pliny,  Roman  governor  of  Bithynia,  appeals  to  Tra- 
jan for  advice.  The  answer  of  Trajan  is  characterized 
by  moderation.  He  directs  him  not  to  seek  for 
offenders,  but  when  they  are  brought  before  his  bar, 
and  continue  to  be  contumacious,  refusing  to  sacrifice : 
the  emperor  intimates  that  there  was  an  existing  law 
by  which  the  Christians  were  amenable  to  the  severest 
penalties,  torture  and  even  capital  punishment.  Pliny 
had  already  inflicted  torture  on  two  females  who  had 
been  brought  before  him  ;  these  females  were  probably 
deaconesses.  Pliny  writes  that  after  torture  he  could 
detect  nothing  "  but  a  culpable  and  extravagant  super- 
stition. They  had  a  custom,"  he  said,  "of  meeting 
together  before  daylight,  and  singing  a  hymn  to  Christ 
as  God.  They  were  bound  together  by  no  unlawful 
sacrament,  but  only  under  mutual  obligation  not  to 
commit  theft,  robbery,  adultery  or  fraud.  They  met 
again  and  partook  together  of  food,  but  that  of  a  per- 
fectly innocent  kind."  The  test  of  guilt  to  which  the 
Christians  were  submitted  was  adoration  before  the 
statues  of  the  gods  and  the  emperor,  and  the  maledic- 
tion of  Christ.  Those  who  refused  were  led  out  to 
execution.  Trajan  approves  of  Pliny's  conduct.  His 
rescript  established  three  points  :  The  Christians  were 
not  to  be  sought  after ;    they  were  not  to  be  proceeded 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  6/ 

against  withooit  a  regular  accuser  and  complaint ;  if  ac- 
cused and  found  guilty  of  being  Christians,  they  were 
to  be  put  to  death,  unless  they  retracted  and  offered 
sacrifice  to  the  gods.  In  the  public  exhibitions,  say 
the  historians  of  those  times,  the  followers  of  all  other 
religions  met  as  on  a  common  ground.  In  the  theatre 
or  the  hippodrome,  the  worshiper  of  Mithra  or  of 
Isis,  mingled  with  the  mass  who  adhered  to  the  worship 
of  Bacchus  or  Jupiter.  Even  the  Jews,  in  some 
instances,  betrayed  no  aversion  to  the  popular  games. 
But  the  Christians  stood  aloof.  "  The  sanguinary  diver- 
sions of  the  arena,"  says  Milman,  "  and  the  licentious 
voluptuousness  of  some  of  the  exhibitions  were  no  less 
offensive,  to  their  humanity  and  modesty,  than  those 
more  strictly  religious  to  their  piety."  They  were  a 
peculiar  people ;  they  could  not  be  hid.  In  little  more 
than  seventy  years  after  the  death  of  Christ,  the  Christ- 
ians in  the  province  of  Pliny  were  no  loiiger  an  obscure 
sect.  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  the  acts  of  perse- 
cution ascribed  to  Trajan  were  connected  with  his 
military  movements.  A  charge  of  disaffection  could 
easily  be  brought  against  the  Christians  by  their  enem- 
ies. While  a  persecution  against  the  Christians  is 
raging  in  the  East,  the  Roman  community  is  in  peace 
and  not  without  influence.  Among  the  most  distin- 
guished Christians,  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan,  were  Simeon,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and 
Ignatius,  the  bishop  of  Antioch.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century,  the  trial  of  Ignatius  is  said  to  have 
taken  place,  before  Trajan  himself,  when  he  was  pre- 
paring for  his  eastern  campaign.  The  emperor  is 
represented  as  kindling  with  anger  at  the  disparage- 
ment of  those  gods  on  whose  protection  he  depended  in 


68  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  impending  war.  "  Is  our  religion,"  he  exclaimed, 
"  to  be  treated  as  senseless  ?  "  The  most  trustworthy 
chronology  places  the  accession  of  Trajan,  a.  d.  98, 
and  the  martyrdom  of  Ignatius  in  a.  d.  112.  At  this 
time,  the  emperor  is  preparing  for  his  Persian  war. 
Ignatius  is  brought  to  Rome.  While  journeying  to 
Rome,  to  meet  his  cruel  fate,  it  is  said  he  wrote 
Epistles  to  the  Churches  in  Asia.  Ignatius  was  a 
hearer  and  convert  of  St.  John,  and  some  say  he  was 
made  a  bishop  by  St.  Peter.  The  Acts  of  Ignatius  are 
considered  as  authentic,  also  seven  of  his  letters.  He 
was  carried  in  chains  to  Rome  as  a  public  spectacle  — 
his  death  was  terrible  —  he  was  thrown  to  the  lions  in 
the  amphitheatre.  Gibbon  says,  the  martyrs  selected 
for  execution  by  the  Roman  magistrates  were  from  the 
two  extremes  of  society ;  they  were  either  bishops, 
whose  example  might  strike  terror,  or  from  the  meanest 
of  the  people,  who  were  regarded  with  careless  indiffer- 
ence.     Adrian  succeeded  Trajan. 

This  emperor,  Adrian,  withdrew  from  foreign  con- 
tests. He  wished  to  bring  the  empire  within  nar- 
rower and  uncontested  limits.  He  traveled  over  all 
the  countries  under  Roman  dominion  ;  he  adorned  the 
cities  with  pubHc  ^buildings,  bridges  and  acqueducts ; 
inquired  into  the  customs  and  manners,  and  into  the 
religion  of  the  distant  parts  of  the  world.  His  personal 
character  showed  incessant  activity  and  versatility.  His 
curious  and  busy  temper  inquired  into  every  form  of 
religion.  At  Athens  he  was  in  turn  the  simple  philoso- 
pher, the  restorer  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus, 
and  the  awe-struck  worshiper  of  the  Eleusinian  myster- 
ies. It  was  at  Athens  that  he  heard  the  apologies  of 
Quadratus  and  of  Aristides  pleading  for  the  truth  and 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  69 

the  moral  superiority  of  Christianity.  He  did  not  repel 
their  respectful  homage.  Perhaps  these  apologies  may 
have  influenced  his  mind  in  issuing  mitigating  laws  on 
slavery.  It  is  impossible  that  the  rapid  growth  of  Chris- 
tianity could  have  escaped  so  inquiring  a  mind  as  the 
mind  of  Adrian.  The  rescript  which  he  addressed  in  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  to  the  proconsul  of  Asia,  was  dic- 
tated by  the  same  policy  as  Trajan's.  Adrian  tells  the  pro- 
consul of  Asia  Minor,  as  did  Trajan,  that  he  must  not 
listen  to  the  popular  cry,  that  would  sometimes  break 
out,  "  The  Christians  to  the  lions, "  but  that  the  form- 
alities of  law  must  be  strictly  complied  with.  The  lines 
that  Adrian  addressed  to  his  soul  when  dying*  prove 
that  he  had  some  idea  of  the  immortality  of  the  spirit, 
though  a  doubtful  questioner.  The  successor  of 
Adrian,  Antoninus  Pius,  maintained  the  mild  policy  of 
his  predecessor,  cither  from  policy  or  indifference. 
Sixty  years  of  almost  uninterrupted  peace  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  second  century  had  opened  a  wide  field  for 
the  development  of  Christianity.  When  Marcus  Au- 
relius,  the  second  Antonine.  succeeds  to  the  throne  of 
the  empire,  a.  d.  i66,  the  religion  of  Christ  had 
spread  into  every  quarter  of  the  Roman  dominion. 
The  western  provinces,  Gaul  and  Africa,  rivalled  the 
East  in  the  number  if  not  in  the  opulence  of  their 
Christian  congregations.  A  separate  community,  se- 
ceding from  the  usages  of  Pagan  life,  at  least  from  the 
public  religious  ceremonial,  had  arisen  in  nearly  every 
city.     An  intimate  correspondence  connected   this  new 

*  Animula,  vagula,  blandula,  Hospes,  comes  que  corporis,  opuae 
nunc  a  bibis  in  loca. 

The  address  of  Adrian  ta  his  soul  probably  suggested  to  Pope,  our 
great  poet,  the  address  of  the  dying  Christian  to  his  soul:  "  Vital  spark 
of  heavenly  flame." 


70  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

moral  republic.  Irenaeus,  the  bishop  of  Lyons,  in  Gaul, 
enters  into  a  controversy  with  the  speculative  teachers 
of  Antioch,  Edessa  or  Alexandria,  while  TertuUian,  of 
Carthage,  in  his  rude  African  Latin,  denounces  or  advo- 
cates opinions  which  spring  up  in  Pontus  or  Phrygia. 
Irenaeus  was  the  great  opponent  of  the  Gnostics,  and  the 
mediator  between  the  eastern  and  western  Churches. 
Irenseus  of  Lyons  was  the  disciple  of  Polycarp,  and  has 
handed  down  valuable  reminiscences  of  his  Apostolic 
teacher.  Irenaeus  gives  ihe  names  of  the  twelve 
bishops,  in  succession,  who  in  his  day  governed  the 
Church  at  Rome.  Irenaeus  me.t  his  death  under  an 
edict  of  Severus  in  A.  d,  202.  Marcus  Aurelius  was  a 
rigid  stoic  ;  he  sometimes  condescended,  in  pure  and 
elegant  Greek,  to  explain  the  lofty  tenets  of  the  Porch, 
and  commend  its  noble  morality  to  his  subjects,  while 
a  large  portion  of  the  world  were  preoccupied  with 
writings,  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  which 
enforced  still  higher  morals.  The  language  of  these 
sacred  books  were  often  impregnated  with  Syrian  and 
foreign  barbarisms,  yet  they  commanded  the  homage 
and  required  the  diligent  study  of  all  the  disciples  of 
the  new  faith.  Christians  were  to  be  found  in  the 
court,  in  the  camp,  in  the  market.  They  did  not  de- 
cline any  of  the  offices  of  society,  not  shunning  entirely 
the  forum  or  yielding  interest  in  the  civil  administra- 
tion ;  they  had  their  mercantile  transactions,  in  com- 
mon with  the  rest  of  that  class.  "We  are  no  Indian 
Brahmins  or  devotees,"  says  TertuUian,  "living  naked 
in  the  woods,  or  self-banished  from  civilized  life."  The 
Christians  admitted  slaves  to  an  equality  of  religious 
privileges,  yet  there  was  no  attempt  to  disorganize  the 
existing  relations  "of  society.     There   is    no  proposed 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  /I 

interference  with  the  social  institution  of  slavery,  in 
the  New  Testament.  Christianity  gives  law  to  a  mas- 
ter, how  a  slave  should  be  treated,  but  leaves  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  slave  to  thnes  which  would  be  ripe  for 
so  admirable  and  important  a  change. 

Marcus  Aurelius  assumed  the  reins  of  empire  a.  d. 
16 1.  He  associated  with  him  the  adopted  son  of  An- 
toninus Pius,  Lucius  Verus.  Marcus  claimed  as  a 
philosopher  to  view  with  calmness  and  impartiality  the 
actions  of  his  subjects,  yet  he  seemed  wholly  to  misun- 
derstand the  character  of  the  Christians.  New  edicts 
were  promulgated  against  the  Christians,  so  far  depart- 
ing from  the  humane  regulations  of  the  former  em- 
perors, that  it  was  difficult  to  believe  how  they  could 
have  emanated  from  an  emperor  so  humane  and  just  to 
all  others.  The  first  year  of  his  association  with  Verus 
was  one  of  comparative  peace,  but  calamities  began  to 
lower.  The  public  mind  was  now  agitated  with  gloomy 
rumors  from  the  frontierj;  foreign  and  civil  wars,  inun- 
dations, earthquakes  and  pestilence  shook  the  whole 
Roman  people  with  apprehension.  The  philosophy  of 
Aurelius  could  not  or  did  not  avail  him  in  a  time  like 
this,  either  to  quiet  the  fears  of  his  subjects,  or  to  quiet 
superstitious  fears  that  crept  into  his  own  heart ;  he 
called  upon  priests  from  all  quarters  to  celebrate  propi- 
tiatory rites.  An  unusual  number  of  sacrifices  were 
offered  up  for  seven  days,  to  purify  the  infected  and 
horror-stricken  city.  An  extraordinary  inundation  of 
the  Tiber  destroyed  many  of  the  granaries  of  corn  on 
the  banks  of  the  river — a  famine  followed,  which  pressed 
heavily  on  the  poor.  A  German  tribe  ravaged  Bel- 
gium ;  the  Parthian  \yar,  which  commenced  disastrous- 
ly in  Syria,    now  demanded    the    presence    of   Verus. 


7?        ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

After  four  years  Verus  returned  bearing  the  trophies  of 
victory,  but  bringing  with  him  in  his  army  a  pestilence, 
that  spread  desolation  and  death.  These  numerous 
troubles  were  ascribed  by  the  superstitious  heathen  to 
the  new  religion.  Precisely  at  this  time,  the  Christian 
martyrologies  date  the  commencement  of  the  persecu- 
tion under  Aurelius.  In  Rome  itself,  Justin,  the  apolo- 
gist of  Christianity,  ratified  with  his  blood  the  sincerity 
of  his  faith.  His  death  is  attributed  to  the  jealousy  of 
Crescens,  a  cynic,  whose  audience  had  been  drawn  off 
by  the  more  attractive  tenets  of  the  Christian  Platonist. 
Justin  was  summoned  before  the  prefect,  one  of  the 
philosophic  teachers  of  Aurelius,  and  commanded  to  do 
sacrifice.  On  his  refusal,  he  was  scourged  and  execu- 
ted. The  emperor  was  probably  absent  during  this 
crisis  of  religious  terror ;  mandates,  it  is  probable,  says 
our  historian,  were  issued  to  the  provinces  to  imitate 
the  devotion  of  the  capital,  and  everywhere  to  appease 
the  offended  gods  by  sacrifice.  However  this  may  be, 
the  fact  is  certain  that  the  persecution  raged  with  vio- 
lence in  the  provinces,  especially  in  Asia  Minor.  The 
pestilence  was  not  entirely  abated  when  news  came  of 
the  Marcomanic  war.  This  Marcomanic  war,  as  it  was 
called,  was  waged  by  an  assemblage  of  German  tribes 
extending  from  Gaul  to  lUyricum.  The  presence  of 
both  emperors  was  needed  in  this  war.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  Marcus  lingered  in  Rome  to  offer  the  .sacri- 
fices of  which  we  have  spoken.  The  martyrdom  of 
Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  occurred  about  this  time, 
with  many  others,  but  the  fame  of  Polycarp  *  has  ob- 
scured that  of  other  victims.  He  was  the  most  distin- 
guished   Christian    of    the    East ;    he    had    heard    the 

•  A.  D.  167. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  73 

Apostle  John  ;  he  had  long  presided  over  the  See  of 
Smyrna.  This  bishop  did  not  ostentatiously  expose 
himself,  nor  neglect  to  take  measures  of  security.  He 
retreated  from  one  village  to  another  to  elude  his  pur- 
suers, but  was  at  length  betrayed  by  two  slaves,  whose 
confession  had  been  extorted  by  torture.  "  The  will 
of  God  be  done,"  he  said.  He  ordered  food  to  be 
given  to  the  officers  of  justice.  He  requested  two  hours 
for  prayer.  He  was  placed  upon  an  ass,  and  on  a  day 
of  public  concourse  was  conducted  to  the  city.  He  was 
met  by  Herod,  the  prefect  of  the  city,  and  his  father, 
Nicetas,  who  took  him  with  much  deference  into  their 
own  carriage.  They  vainly  endeavored  to  persuade 
him  to  submit  to  the  two  tests  required — the  salutation 
of  the  emperor  by  the  title  of  Lord,  and  to  offer  sacri- 
fice. On  his  refusal,  he  was  thrust  from  the  chariot, 
and  taken  to  the  crowded  stadium. 


74  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

MARTYRDOM    OF    FOLYCARP. 

The  merciful  proconsul  besought  him,  in  respect  to 
his  old  age,  to  conceal  his  name.  The  Christian  spec- 
tators imagined  that  they  heard  a  voice  from  Heaven, 
saying,  "  Polycarp,  be  firm."  He  proclaimed  aloud  that 
\v^  wdiS,  Poly  carp.  The  trial  proceeded  :  "  Swear, "  they 
said,  ' '  by  the  genius  of  Cesar  ;  retract,  and  say,  'Away 
with  the  godless.'  "  The  old  man,  says  the  narrator, 
gazed  in  sorrow  at  the  frantic  and  raging  benches  of 
the  spectators,  rising  above  each  other,  and  with  his 
eyes  uplifted  to  heaven  said,  "Away  with  the  godless." 
The  proconsul,  urged  him  further,  "  Swear,  and  I 
release  thee;  blaspheme  Christ."  "Eighty  and  six 
years  have  I  served  Christ ;  how  can  I  blaspheme  my 
King  and  my  Saviour?"  The  proconsul  again  begged 
him  to  swear  by  the  genius  of  Caesar,  He  replied,  by 
requesting  a  day  to  be  appointed  on  which  he  might 
explain  the  blameless  tenets,  of  Christianity.  "  Per- 
suade the  people  to  consent,"  said  the  compassionate  but 
overawed  ruler.  * '  We  owe  respect  to  authority  ;  to  thee 
I  will  explain  my  conduct,  but  to  the  populace  I  will 
make  no  explanation."  He  knew  too  well  the  furious 
passions  raging  in  their  minds  and  how  vain  it  would  be 
to  seek  to  allay  them  by  the  rational  arguments  of 
Christianity.  The  proconsul  threatened  to  expose  him 
to  the  wild  beasts,  and  then  he  threatened  to  burn  him. 
'  "T  is  well  for  me  speedily  to  be  released  from  a  life  of 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        75 

misery.  I  fear  not  the  fire  that  burns  for  a  moment ; 
thou  knowest  not  that  which  burns  forever  and  ever." 
His  countenance  was  full  of  peace  and  joy,  even  when 
the  Jurald  proclaimed  in  the  midst  of  the  assembly, 
"  Polycarp  has  professed  himself  to  be  a  Christian." 
Then  with  a  shout  the  people  cried,  "This  is  the 
teacher  of  all  Asia,  the  overthrower  of  our  gods,  he 
who  has  turned  away  so  many  from  sacrifice."  The 
Jews,  of  whom  there  were  great  numbers,  joined  with 
the  heathen  in  this  assault.  They  demanded  of  the 
president  of  the  games  that  a  lion  should  be  let  loose ; 
he  excused  himself  by  saying,  "  The  games  are  over." 
They  declared  he  should  be  burned,  and  immediately 
both  Jews  and  heathen  collected  speedily  the  materials 
for  a  funeral  pile.  He  requested  not  to  be  nailed ;  they 
bound  him  to  the  stake.  He  was  unrobed.  We  will 
write  the  prayer  he  uttered,  as  it  expressed  the  senti- 
ments of  the  Christians  of  that  period.  "  O  Lord  God 
Almighty,  the  Father  of  the  well  beloved  and  ever 
blessed  Son  Jesus  Christ,  by  whom  we  have  received 
the  knowledge  of  Thee ;  the  God  of  angels,  powers 
and  of  every  creature,  and  of  the  whole  race  of  the 
righteous  who  live  before  Thee.  I  thank  Thee  that 
Thou  hast  thought  me  worthy  of  this  hour  and  this  day, 
that  I  may  receive  a  portion  in  the  number  of  Thy 
martyrs,  and  drink  of  Christ's  cup  for  the  resurrection 
of  eternal  life,  both  of  body  and  soul,  in  the  incorrupt- 
ibleness  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  among  whom  may  I  be 
admitted  this  day  as  a  rich  and  acceptable  sacrifice,  as 
Thou,  O  true  and  faithful  God,  hast  prepared  and  fore- 
shown and  accomplished.  Wherefore  I  praise  Thee  for 
all  Thy  mercies ;  I  bless  Thee,  I  glorify  Thee,  with  the 
eternal  and  heavenly  Jesus  Christ,  Thy  beloved  Son,  to 


76  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Whom  with  Thee  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  be  glory  now 
and  forever." 

Polycarp  was  at  least  a  hundred  years  old.*  His 
death  closed  the  nameless  train  of  Asiatic  martyrs. 

Some  few  years  after  the  martyrdom  of  this  aged 
bishop,  the  city  of  Smryna  was  visited  by  an  earth- 
quake ;  a  generous  sympathy  was  displayed  by  the 
neighboring  cities ;  provisions  were  poured  in  from  all 
quarters ;  homes  were  offered  to  the  houseless,  car- 
riages were  furnished  to  convey  the  infirm  and  the 
children  from  the  scene  of  ruin.  In  such  humane  con- 
duct, may  not  the  progress  of  Christian  benevolence  be 
traced  ?  Many  of  the  sufferers  were  those  whose 
amphitheatre  had  been  stained  with  the  blood  of  the 
aged  martyr.  They  hastened  to  alleviate  the  common 
miseries  of  both  Pagan  and  Christian,  not  allowing  the 
thought  of  divine  retribution  to  interfere  with  their 
humane,  their  Christian  work.  In  circumstances  like 
these,  can  we  not  trace  an  extraordinary  revolution  in 
the  sentiments  of  mankind  ? 

In  the  war  with  the  Marcomanni  (of  which  we  have 
already  spoken),  in  the  campaign  of  the  year  174,  the 
army  advanced  incautiously  into  a  region  entirely  with- 
out water,  and  in  a  faint  and  enfeebled  state  was 
exposed,  to  a  formidable  attack  of  the  whole  barbarian 
force.  Suddenly  at  an  hour  of  extreme  distress,  a 
copious  and  refreshing  rain  came  down,  which  supplied 
their  wants,  while  lightning,  and  hailstones  of  an  enor- 
mous size,  drove  full  upon  the  adversary,  and  rendered 
his  army  an  easy  conquest  to  the  Romans.  Heathen 
historians,  medals  still  extant,  and  the  column  which 
bears  the  name  of  Antoninus  at  Rome,  concur  with 

•  The  Christian  Legion. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  ^J 

Christian  tradition  in  commemorating  the  wonderful 
deHverance  of  the  Roman  army,  during  the  war  with 
the  German  nations.  This  celebrated  event  was  long 
current  in  Christian  history  as  the  legend  of  the  thun- 
dering legion.  The  Christians  attributed  the  refreshing 
shower  to  the  prayers  they  had  addressed  to  the 
Father,  through  Christ.  The  heathen  ascribed  the  vic- 
tory to  Jupiter.  Gibbon  says,  we  are  assured  by 
monuments  of  marble  and  brass,  by  the  imperial 
medals,  and  by  the  Antonine  column,  that  the 
heathen  unanimously  attribute  their  success  to  the 
providence  of  Jupiter  and  the  interposition  of  Mer- 
cury." The  skeptical  historian  concludes  his  account 
of  this  matter  with  this  remark :  "Marcus  Aurelius 
despised  the  Christians  as  a  philosopher,  and  pun- 
ished them  as  a  sovereign."  That  there  were  many 
Christians  in  the  army  of  Marcus  in  the  Marcomanic 
war  seems  very  probable,  from  the  fact  that  the  con- 
scription was  very  strict;  even  gladiators  were  forced 
into  his  army.  Whether  military  service  was  consistent 
with  Christian  principles,  was  a  question  that  divided 
the  early  Christians :  some  considering  it  too  closely 
connected  with  the  idolatrous  practices  of  an  oath,  to 
the  fortunes  of  Caesar,  and  the  worship  of  the  standards ; 
but  others  considered  it  their  duty  to  give  allegiance  to 
their  sovereign,  and  their  patriotism  and  love  of  country 
overcame  their  scruples.  This  was  a  time  of  so  great  peril 
to  the  country,  that  there  were  doubtless  many  Christians 
in  the  army — it  may  be  an  exaggerated  tradition  which 
declares  that  the  Christians  formed  a  whole  separate 
legion,  in  that  army.  Tradition  also  says  that  the 
Christians  believed  that  the  shower  was  sent  in  answer 
to  tJicir  prayers.       God  was   certainly  merciful   to   the 


yS  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

whole  army.  "  He  maketh  the  sun  to  rise  upon  the  evil 
and  upon  the  good ;  and  sendeth  his  rain  upon  the  just 
and  upon  the  unjust." 

The  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  was 
distinguished  by  another  series  of  martyrdoms.  In  the 
year  a.  d.  177,  Ponthius,  bishop  of  Lyons,  in  his 
ninetieth  year,  died  in  prison  from  the  ill  usage  he  had 
received.  The  Christians  of  Lyons  and  Vienna  appear 
to  have  been  a  colony  from  Phrygia ;  they  had  main- 
tained a  close  correspondence  with  their  Christian 
brethren,  in  the  distant  communities  of  Asia  Minor. 
To  this  district,  many  years  previous,  had  been  ban- 
ished Archelaus  and  Herod  Antipas ;  and  Pontius 
Pilate  was  also  banished  to  this  place.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  a  Jewish  settlement  had  been  formed 
around  these  banished  scions  of  royalty.*  It  is  quite 
certain  that  there  were  many  devoted  Christians  living 
in  the  region,  round  about  Lyons  and  Vienna,  and  from 
this  point  it  is  probable  that  Christianity  penetrated  into 
Gaul  and  Britain.  The  severe  persecution  that  now 
occurred  in  this  region  may  have  scattered  the  disciples 
abroad,  as  similar  calamities  had  done  in  the  early 
Christian  times.  Sanctus,  a  deacon  of  Vienna,  and 
Attalus  of  Pergamus,  and  Maturus,  a  new  convert, 
were  tortured  in  the  most  horrible  manner.  The 
amphitheatre  was  the  great  public  scene  of  popular 
barbarity  and  Christian  endurance.  Here  they  were 
exposed  to  wild  beasts,  yet  before  the  ferocity  of  beasts 
could  dispatch  them  they  were  made  to  sit  on  heated 
iron  chairs,  till  their  flesh  reeked  with  an  offensive  odor. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  sufferers,  in  this  memorable 
martyrdom,  was  Blandina,  a  slave.     She  shared  without 

"'  Milman. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  79 

flinching  in  the  most  excruciating  tortures  with  the 
most  distinguished  victims.  The  mistress  of  Blandina, 
herself  a  martyr,  trembled  lest  her  humble  associate 
might  betray  their  loved  and  righteous  cause.  She  was 
led  forth  first  together  with  several  distinguished  men. 
The  only  reply  that  could  be  extorted  from  this  heroic 
woman  was,  "  I  am  a  Christian,  and  no  wickedness  is 
practiced  among  us."  The  remains  of  these  martyrs 
were  cast  into  the  Rhone,  in  order  to  mock  and  render 
more  improbable  their  hopes  of  a  resurrection. 

With  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius  closed  what 
has  been  termed  the  golden  days  of  the  Roman  empire. 
But  in  the  weakness  and  insecurity  of  the  throne  lay 
the  strength  and  safety  of  Christianity ;  for  little  more 
than  a  century  from  the  reign  of  Commodus,  the 
brutal  son  of  Aurelius,  to  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  no 
systematic  policy  could  be  pursued,  with  regard  to  the 
religion  or  to  any  of  the  leading  internal  interests  of  the 
empire.  Many  of  the  emperors  were  involved  in  for- 
eign wars  and  had  no  time  for  the  social  changes  within 
the  pale  of  the  empire.  The  persecutions  of  the 
Christians  which  took  place  during  this  period  seem  to 
have  been  the  result  of  the  personal  hostility  of  the 
provincial  rulers. 


80  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

STORY    OF    ORIGEN. 

During  the  reign  of  Commodus  the  Christians  had 
a  friend  in  Martia,  the  favorite  wife  of  the  Emperor. 
The  Christians  had  a  long,  unbroken  peace,  during  the 
reign  of  this  degraded  monarch.  Septimius  Severus 
commenced  his  reign  a,  d.  194.  This  emperor 
wielded  the  sceptre  with  great  energy,  but  his  early 
reign  was  occupied  with  Eastern  wars,  and  his  later 
years  with  the  affairs  of  the  remote  province  of  Britain. 
Severus  was  at  one  time  the  protector  and  at  another 
time  the  persecutor  of  Christianity.  His  son  Caracalla 
had,  it  is  said,  a  Christian  nurse  and  a  Christian  pre- 
ceptor. During  his  childhood  the  gentleness  of  his 
manners  and  the  sweetness  of  his  temper  gave  promise 
of  a  humane  ruler,  but,  alas,  the  natural  ferocity  of  his 
temper  ripened*  under  the  fatal  influence  of  jealous 
ambition,  which  could  not  endure  the  rivalry  of  his 
brother.  Many  Christians  of  distinction  enjoyed  the 
avowed  favor  of  the  emperor.  The  persecutions  in 
the  reign  of  Severus  in  the  eastern  provinces  seem  to 
have  resulted  from  the  acts  of  hostile  governors. 
Alexandria  was  the  chief  scene  of  suffering  in  this  reign. 
Leonidas,  the  father  of  Origen,  perished  in  this  persecu- 
tion. Origen,  then  a  youth  of  seventeen  years,  was 
kept  from  imprisonment  with  his  father  by  the  prudent 
care  and  strategem  of  his  mother,  who  concealed  all 
his  clothes.     The  boy  wrote  to  his  father,  Leonidas, 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  01 

imploring  him  to  be  steadfast  and  not  to  allow  his  affec- 
tion for  him  and  his  family  to  stand  in  his  way  of 
obtaining  a  martyr's  crown.  Three  hostile  parties 
divided  Alexandria  at  this  time :  Jews,  Christians,  and 
Pagans,  the  worshipers  of  Serapis.  Severus  when  in 
Egypt  seemed  to  be  impressed  with  the  mysterious 
rites  of  Serapis.  The  Egyptian  priests  took  advantage 
of  this  hour  of  imperial  favor  to  wreak  their  vengeance 
upon  the  Christians  who  were  making  great  pro- 
gress throughout  this  province  of  Africa.  It  is  not 
certainly  known  whether  the  Emperor  Severus  author- 
ized the  persecution  that  was  now  waged  by  the  Prefect 
of  Alexandria,  but  he  used  the  most  violent  measures. 
The  elementary  schools  of  learning  by  which  the  Chris- 
tians ti'ained  their  pupils  were  almost  deserted  in  conse- 
quence of  the  persecu Lions  waged  against  the  Christian 
teachers.  Clement  and  Origen  were  two  of  the  great 
teachers  of  the  Alexandrian  school.  The  young  Origen 
labored  with  unceasing  activity  in  these  schools.  Ori- 
gen had  some  peculiar  opinions,  but  he  was  very  learned 
and  devout.  In  no  part  of  the  Roman  Empire  had 
Christianity  taken  deeper  hold  than  *in  the  rich  and 
populous  cities  of  Africa.  This  country,  together  with 
Egypt,  was  then  the  granary  of  the  Western  World. 
It  is  now  a  thinly  peopled  desert,  made  so  by  Chris- 
tian feuds,  Vandal  invasions  and  Mohammedan  barbar- 
ism. This  was  the  land  of  Origen,  of  Tertullian,  of 
Augustine,  of  Cyprian.  From  the  ascension  of  Com- 
modus  (son  of  Marcus  Aurelius),  to  that  of  Diocletian, 
A.  D.  284,  more  than  twenty  emperors  flitted  like 
shadows  across  the  tragic  theatre  of  the  imperial  palace. 
During  the  persecution  to  which  we  have  referred  in 
Africa,    Tertullian    stood    forth    as    the    apologist   of 


82  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Christianity,  African  Christianity  was  not  dreamy  and 
speculative,  Hke  the  religion  of  the  East.  It  rejected 
the  wild  fancies  of  the  Gnostics.  It  was  anti-material 
and  simple  and  practical  in  its  creed.  The  address  of 
Tertullian  to  the  Prefect  of  Africa  is  no  longer  the  lan- 
guage of  mild  remonstrance  or  expostulation,  but  every 
sentence  breathes  defiance  and  scorn.  It  hurls  con- 
tempt upon  the  gods  of  paganism.  He  avows  the 
determination  of  Christians  to  expel  the  idols  or 
demons  from  the  respect  and  adoration  of  mankind. 
The  language  of  Tertullian  shows  the  altered  position 
of  Christianity.  Of  all  the  histories  of  martyrdom 
none  is  so  unexaggerated  in  its  tone  and  language  and 
so  abounds  in  touches  of  nature,  and  breathes  such 
truth  and  reality,  says  our  historian,  as  those  of  Perpetua 
and  Felicita,  two  African  females.  Their  deaths  are 
said  to  have  taken  place  in  the  first  year  of  Geta  the 
son  of  Severus  and  brother  of  the  wicked  Caracalla. 
Perpetua  and  Felicita  were  young  and  delicate 
women.  The  father  of  the  former  vainly  tried  to  make 
her  recant,  in  order  to  save  the  life  of  his  beloved 
daughter.  The  most  tender  appeals  were  made  by 
the  family  of  Perpetua,  to  pervert  her  from  the  faith. 
She  belonged  to  a  good  family  and  had  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, and  was  honorably  married.  The  history  of  her 
martyrdom  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  her  own 
hands.  She  was  cast  into  prison  with  an  infant  in  her 
arms.  Perpetua  left  her  child  with  her  family.  Felici- 
ta, who  had  been  a  slave,  gave  her  child  to  a  Christian 
woman  to  bring  up.  The  lady  and  the  slave  went  out 
hand  in  hand,  to  the  ampitheatre,  to  be  torn  by  beasts. 
A  wild  cow  was  let  loose  upon  them.  Their  heroism 
and  endurance  were  wonderful.      Perpetua  seemed  to 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  83 

be  in  a  dream,  and  almost  unconscious  of  her  bodily- 
pain.  Her  last  words  tenderly  admonished  her  brother 
to  be  steadfast  in  the  faith.  Five  martyrs  suffered  at 
this  time,  three  women  and  two  men.  After  being  torn 
by  beasts,  they  were  speedily  released  from  their  suf- 
ferings, by  the  merciful  sword  of  the  gladiator.  Per- 
petua  guiding  with  her  own  hand  the  sword  to  her 
throat.  This  African  persecution  lasted  until  the 
second  year  of  Caracalla,  21 1-2 17  a.  d. 

From  the  close  of  the  reign  of  the  sons  of  Severus, 
except  during  the  reign  of  Maximin,  Christianity 
enjoyed  peace  until  the  reign  of  Decius.  The  weak 
and  crumbling  edifice  of  paganism  was  now  shaken  to 
its  base,  a.  d.  218,  by  the  accession  of  the  Syrian 
Elagabulus.  He  was  the  priest  of  an  effeminate  super- 
stition. He  introduced  with  much  pomp  into  Rome 
the  worship  of  the  sun,  as  though  he  meant  to  super- 
sede the  ancestral  deities  of  the  great  city.  The  con- 
ical black  stone,  the  idol  of  Emesa  in  Syria,  was 
brought  to  Rome;  a  magnificent  temple  was  built  upon 
the  Palatine  hill ;  hecatombs  of  oxen  and  sheep  were 
offered  upon  numerous  altars.  The  highest  dignitaries 
of  the  empire,  commanders  of  legions,  grave  senators, 
the  equestrian  order,  were  required  to  appear  as  hum- 
ble ministers,  clad  in  loose  and  flowing  robes  and  in 
linen  sandals,  among  the  lascivious  dancers  and  wanton 
music  of  oriental  drums  and  cymbals.  Nothing  was  sa- 
cred to  the  voluptuous  Syrian.  The  palladium  of  the  city, 
that  image  of  Minerva  cherished  above"  all  the  hallowed 
treasures  of  the  city,  was  brought  forth  to  be  wedded 
to  a  Syrian  deity  worshiped  in  the  East  under  the 
name  of  Astarte.  Such  insults  to  the  ancient  religion, 
must  have  disgusted  the    people,    and    also   deprived 


84  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

them  of  the  veneration  they  had  formerly  felt  for  the 
majesty  of  their  religion.  The  pollutions  and  sensual- 
ity of  the  religion  of  Elagabulus,  together  with  the  rude 
shocks  sustained  by  the  ancient  paganism,  probably 
tended  to  turn  the  minds  of  the  thinking  and  moral  to 
embrace  a  purer  faith.  The  successor  of  Elagabulus 
was  Alexander  Severus,  who,  though  a  Syrian,  had 
been  educated  with  some  knowledge  of  Christianity. 
His  mother  had  held  intercourse  with  the  Christians 
of  Syria ;  she  had  listened  to  the  lectures  of  Origen 
with  respect,  if  not  with  conviction.  Alexander  seems 
to  have  affected  a  kind  of  universalism.  In  his  own 
palace  he  enshrined,  as  it  were,  the  representatives  of 
the  different  religions  which  prevailed  in  the  Roman 
Empire — Orpheus,  Abraham,  Christ,  and  Apollonius 
of  Tyana.  In  Apollonius  was  centered  the  modern 
Theurgy,  the  magic  which  commanded  the  intermedi- 
ate spirits,  between  the  higher  world  and  the  world  of 
man,  Abraham  rather  than  Moses  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  Judaism.  Christianity  in  the  person  of  its 
founder,  even  where  it  did  not  command  authority  as  a 
religion,  had  lost  the  unjust  opprobrium  under  which 
it  so  long  labored,  of  animosity  to  mankind.  The 
followers  of  Jesus  had  now  lived  down  the  bitter  hos- 
tility which  had  prevailed  against  them.  Christian 
churches  began  to  rise  in  different  parts  of  the  Empire, 
Christian  bishops  were  admitted  at  the  Court  in  a 
recognized  official  character.  To  this  time  at  least  in 
Rome,  A.  D.  322,  the  religious  assemblies  of  the 
Christians  were  held  in  private ;  to  the  wonder  of  the 
heathen,  their  religion  appeared  without  temple  or  altar. 
The  cemeteries  of  the  dead,  the  sequestered  grove,  the 
private  chamber,   continued  their  peaceful  assemblies. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  85 

Their  religious  usages  now  became  better  known.  It  is 
said  that  the  Christians  at  this  time  published  the 
names  of  those  who  had  been  proposed  for  ordination, 
and  that  Alexander  established  a  similar  proceeding 
with  regard  to  all  candidates  for  civil  offices.  A  piece 
of  ground  was  also  awarded  to  the  Christians  by  Alex- 
ander, upon  the  principle  that  it  was  better  to  devote  it 
to  the  worship  of  God  than  to  any  profane  use.  These 
circumstances  have  created  a  suspicion  that  Alexander 
was  a  believer  in  Christianity,  though  he  made  no 
public  confession.  The  earliest  Christian  churches  in 
Rome  are  assigned  by  Tillemont  to  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander Severus.  Rooms  of  small  architectural  dimen- 
sions were  doubtless  used  for  worship  long  before  this 
time,  but  without  observation.  The  heathen  religion 
had  greatly  changed  at  this  period  from  the  old  beliefs 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  They  worshiped  in  the  same 
temples  and  performed  many  of  the  same  rites,  but 
over  all  this  had  risen  a  kind  of  speculative  Theism, 
to  which  the  popular  worship  was  subordinate.  Cel- 
sus,  the  famous  controversialist  with  Origen,  tells  him 
that  a  philosophical  notion  of  the  Deity  was  perfectly 
reconcilable  with  the  Deity.  This  was  the  commence- 
ment of  a  new  Platonism  which  from  this  time  exer- 
cised a  supreme  authority,  to  the  extinction  of  the 
older  forms  of  Grecian  philosophy,  and  grew  up  into  a 
dangerous  antagonist  of  Christianity.  Several  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church  had  been  students  of  this  new 
Platonism,  before  they  imbibed  the  divine  Philosophy 
which  Cometh  from  above.  This  philosophy,  however, 
could  exercise  no  extensive  influence ;  it  was  merely  a 
refuge  for  the  intellectual  few.  The  successor  of  Alex- 
ander was  a  Thracian  savage.      The  Christian  Bishops, 


86  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

like  all  the  other  polite  and  virtuous  men,  in  the  court 
of  his  predecessor,  were  exposed  to  the  suspicions  and 
hatred  of  the  brutal  and  warlike  Maximin.  The  reign 
of  Gordian  was  short.  Philip  the  Arabian,  his  succes- 
sor, has  been  claimed  by  some  as  a  Christian,  but  the 
splendor  with  which  he  celebrated  the  great  religious 
rites  of  Rome  refutes  this  idea.  It  was  the  thousandth 
year  of  Rome  from  its  foundation,  and  the  Roman 
people  demanded  extraordinary  magnificence.  The 
persecution  under  Decius  for  extent  and  violence  was 
terrible.  The  Christians  were  now  a  recognized  body 
in  the  State.  They  were  necesarily  of  the  party  of  the 
Emperor,  whose  favor  they  had  enjoyed.  Decius  hated 
the  adherents  of  the  murdered  Philip.  The  protection 
of  a  foreign  religion  by  a  foreign  Emperor  (now  that 
Christianity  had  begun  to  erect  temple  against  temple, 
and  the  Christian  bishop  met  the  pagan  pontiff  on  equal 
terms  around  the  imperial  throne)  would  be  considered 
among  the  flagrant  departures  from  the  wisdom  of 
Ancient  Rome.  Decius  claimed  to  be  a  descendant  of 
the  Decii  of  Republican  Rome,  though  of  obscure 
Pannonian  birth.  He  thought  himself  called  upon  to 
restore  the  religion  as  well  as  the  manners  of  Ancient 
Rome.  He  determined  to  make  an  effort  to  purify 
Rome  from  the  rivalry  of  Asiatic  and  modern  supersti- 
tion. The  Bishop  Fabianus  was  one  of  the  first  victims 
of  his  resentment ;  no  successor  was  elected  to  the  ob- 
noxious office  during  the  brief  reign  of  Decius.  Many 
of  the  great  cities  of  the  Empire  followed  the  example 
of  the  capital.  In  Alexandria,  the  zeal  of  the  populace 
outran  the  fury  of  the  Emperor.  Antioch  bewailed 
the  loss  of  her  bishop.  Carthage  was  disgraced  by  the 
falling  away  of  some  even  of  her  clergy — the  great  test 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        87 

to  which  the  persecuted  were  liable,  was  the  require- 
ment to  sacrifice  to  their  idols.  Should  any  of  the  Chris- 
tians be  overcome  by  terror  and  perform  the  sacrifice, 
long  years  of  penitence  and  humility  were  required, 
before  they  could  again  be  admitted  to  Christian  priv- 
ileges. Valerian  ascended  the  throne  three  years  after 
Decius.  He  revived  in  his  own  person  the  ancient 
office  of  censor  of  public  morals.  The  commencement 
of  the  censor's  reign,  who  scrutinized  with  care  the 
influence  of  Christianity  upon  public  morals,  was  favor- 
able to  their  cause.  For  a  short  time,  therefore,  perse- 
cution ceased.  The  change  in  Valerian's  conduct  is 
attributed  to  the  influence  of  a  man  deeply  versed  in 
magic.  Macrianus  is  reported  to  have  obtained  such 
mastery  over  Valerian  as  to  induce  him  to  engage  in 
the  most  guilty  mysteries  of  magic  in  tracing  the  fate 
of  the  empire  in  the  entrails  of  human  victims.  The 
edict  against  the  Christians  in  this  persecution  of  Vale- 
rian subjected  all  the  bishops  who  refused  to  conform 
to  their  requirements  to  the  penalty  of  death,  and  seized 
the  endowment  of  their  churches.  Cyprian,  bishop  of 
Carthage,  was  advanced  in  life  when  he  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity ;  He  passed  rapidly  through 
the  steps  of  Christian  initiation.  On  the  vacancy  of 
the  bishopric  of  Carthage  he  was  overpowered  by  the 
acclamations  of  the  city,  which  compelled  him  to  assume 
the  distinguished  but  dangerous  office.  Cyprian  had 
high  notions  of  Episcopal  authority.  The  inviolable 
unity  of  the  outward  and  visible  Church  appeared  to 
him  an  integral  part  of  Christianity,  and  the  discipline 
of  the  Episcopal  order  the  only  means  of  preserving 
that  unity.  The  first  rumor  of  persecution  designated 
Cyprian  as  a  victim.  Cyprian  withdrw  from  the  storm. 
Inventive  cruelty  suggested  new  means  of  torture. 


88  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Cyprian,  in  his  retreat  (a.  d.  254),  wrote  consolatory 
letters  to  those  not  so  fortunate  as  himself.  His  letters 
describe  the  relentless  barbarity  of  their  persecutors. 
During  the  reign  of  Decius,  Cyprian  remained  in  re- 
tirement. He  returned  to  Carthage  in  the  early  part  of 
the  reign  of  Valerian.  A  plague  at  this  time  ravaged 
the  Roman  world.  Its  destructive  violence  thinned  the 
streets  of  the  populous  Carthage.  Cyprian  devoted  his 
energies  to  the  alleviation  of  human  suffering.  He  ex- 
horted the  Christians  not  to  limit  their  attentions  to 
their  own  brotherhood,  but  to  extend  kindness  indis- 
criminately to  their  heathen  enemies.  He  determined 
to  remain  at  Carthage.  After  a  time  he  was  summoned 
before  the  proconsul,  who  told  him  that  the  emperor 
required  all  those  who  professed  foreign  religions  to 
offer  sacrifice.  Cyprian  refused.  "Art  thou  Thasian 
Cyprian,  the  bishop  of  so  many  impious  men?"  said 
the  proconsul.  "I  will  not  sacrifice,"  replied  Cyprian. 
He  was  banished.  On  the  accession  of  Galerius,  he 
was  recalled  from  exile,  but  placed  in  a  prison  in  the 
city.  He  was  treated  with  respect  and  delicacy.  A 
crowd  of  Christians  and  heathen  assembled  at  his 
prison  door,  to  catch  glances  and  hear  words  from  one 
they  loved  so  well.  The  proconsul  received  orders 
from  the  sacred  emperor  that  the  man  who  had  deluded 
so  many  must  die.  Cyprian  was  taken  to  a  field  and 
beheaded  (a.  d.  254). 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST,  89 

DECIUS. 

The  proconsul  died  a  few  days  afterwards  (a.  d. 
249-25 1).  The  death  of  Decius,  according  to  the 
Pagan  account,  was  worthy  of  the  days  of  old.  He  was 
wounded  by  the  Goths ;  his  son  was  killed  by  an  arrow. 
He  cried  aloud  that  the  life  of  a  single  soldier  was 
nothing  to  the  glory  of  the  empire,  and  soon  fell,  val- 
iantly fighting.  Christian  writers  say  he  was  betrayed 
by  treachery  into  a  marsh,  where  he  could  neither, 
fight  nor  fly.  He  perished  miserably,  leaving  his  un- 
buried  body  to  the  carrion  birds  and  beasts.  The 
captivity  of  Valerian  (a.  d.  254)  by  the  Persians  took 
place  in  258.  It  is  said  that  the  Persian  king  used  the 
body  of  his  unhappy  captive  as  a  footstool  for  many 
years,  in  order  to  mount  his  elephant.  He  never  re- 
turned to  Rome.      Much  mystery  hung  over  his  death. 

Gallienus  restored  peace  to  the  Church.  The  edict 
of  Valerian  was  rescinded.  The  last  transient  collision 
of  Christianity  with  the  Government,  before  its  final 
dreadful  conflict  with  Diocletian,  was  under  Aurelian. 
The  reign  of  Aurelian  (a.  d.  271)  was  much  occupied 
with  warlike  campaigns.  His  mother  was  a  priestess 
of  the  sun,  and  the  emperor  built  a  temple  to  his  tute- 
lary god  at  Rome.  The  sacred  ceremony  of  consulting 
the  sibylline  books  was  directed  by  him.  In  their 
mystic  leaves  the  Roman  people  had  believed  their  des- 
tinies were  written.  The  severe  emperor  now  reproaches 
the  Senate  for  their  want  of  faith  in  these  volumes. 
He  attributes  their  skepticism  to  the  influence  of  the 
Christians.  No  hostile  measures  were  taken  against  the 
Christians  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign.  Aurelian  was 
summoned  as  an  arbitrator  in  a  Christian  controversy. 


go  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Paul  of  Samosata  was  bishop  of  Antioch.  He  brought 
disgrace  on  this  important  See  by  blending  together  the 
elements  of  Paganism,  Judaism  and  Christianity.  His 
pride  and  ostentation  put  to  shame  the  modesty  and 
humble  pretensions  of  former  prelates.  The  zealous 
vigilance  of  neighboring  bishops  soon  discovered  that 
his  opinions  were  moie  nearly  allied  to  Judaism  than  to 
the  Christian  creed.  He  lived  under  the  protection  of 
Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  who  had  given  him  a  civil 
magistracy.  He  introduced  many  effeminate  cere- 
monies into  his  cathedral,  which  reminded  the  worship- 
ers of  the  voluptuous  rites  of  Paganism.  He  set  at 
defiance  the  solemn  censures  and  excommunication 
pronounced  by  a  synod  of  bishops  against  him.  But 
when  his  warlike  patroness,  Zenobia,  was  conquered  by 
the  armies  of  Aurelian,  the  bishops  appealed  to  Aure- 
lian  to  expel  the  rebel  against  their  authority,  and  the 
partisan  of  the  Palmyrenes.  The  emperor  did  not  re- 
fuse to  interfere  in  this  case — so  strange  to  him — but 
transferred  judgment  from  the  bishops  of  Syria  to 
those  of  Rome  and  Italy.  By  their  sentence  Paul  was 
degraded  from  the  Episcopate.  The  sentiments  of 
Aurelian  changed  towards  the  Christians  near  the  close 
of  his  reign.  Sanguinary  edicts  were  issued,  but  death 
prevented  their  general  promulgation.  Tradition  says 
that  a  young  deacon,  St.  Lawrence,  was  put  to  death 
in  the  reign  of  Valerian.  He  was  roasted  on  bars  of 
iron.  When  he  was  asked  to  produce  the  treasures  of 
the  church,  he  assembled  together  the  cripples  and 
aged  widows  of  the  church,  who  were  maintained  by 
the  alms  of  the  charitable.  "These  are  the  treasures 
of  the  church,"  said  Lawrence.  This  so  enraged  his 
persecutors  that  they  burned  him  upon  a  gridiron. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        9 1 

Diocletian  ascended  the  throne  of  the  Csesars  a.  d, 
284.  The  necessities  of  the  times  now  seemed  to  re- 
quire more  than  one  person  to  be  invested  with 
sovereign  authority.  Diocletian,  Galerius,  Maximian, 
and  Constantius  in  Britain  and  Gaul  no»v  divided  the 
cares  and  honors  of  the  Roman  world.  Among  the 
innovations  of  Diocletian,  none  was  more  closely  con- 
nected with  the  interests  of  Christianity  than  the 
virtual  degradation  of  Rome  by  its  ceasing  to  be  the 
capital  of  the  empire,  by  the  residence  of  the  chief 
emperor  in  other  cities.  Nicomedia,  while  Diocle- 
tian held  the  reins  of  power,  was  the  favorite  resi- 
dence. The  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  from 
Rome  to  Nicomedia  made  more  manifest  the  magni- 
tude of  the  danger  to  existing  institutions  from  the 
progress  of  Christianity.  Diocletian,  a.  d.  2S4:  "In 
Rome,  the  ancient  majesty  of  the  national  religion 
must  still  have  kept  down  Christianity  in  comparative 
obscurity.  The  Praetor  still  made  way  for  the  pontifical 
order,  and  submitted  his  fasces  to  the  vestal  virgin, 
while  the  Christian  bishop  pursued  his  more  humble 
way."  The  churches  of  the  Christians  could  not  com- 
pare at  this  time  with  the  stately  temples  of  the 
heathen,  on  which  the  sovereigns  of  mankind  had  lav- 
ished the  treasures  of  ages.  In  a  letter  of  Cornelius, 
bishop  of  Rome,  written  during  the  reign  of  Decius 
(a.  d.  250),  he  says:  "We  have  one  bishop,  forty- 
six  presbyters,  fourteen  deacons  ;  also  readers,  acolytes, 
fifteen  hundred  widows  and  poor."  The  East  was  more 
fully  peopled  with  Christians  than  any  part  of  the 
Western  world,  except  Africa.  The  bisJwps  of  Antioch 
and  Nicomedia,  of  Carthage  and  Alexandria,  were  far 
more  conspicuous  and  imposing  persons  than  the  prede- 


92  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

cessors  of  the  popes,  among  the  consuls  and  the 
Senate,  and  the  ministers  of  the  ruHng  emperor.  In 
Nicomedia,  the  Christian  church  stood  on  an  eminence 
commanding  the  town,  and  conspicuous  above  the  pal- 
ace of  the  sovereign ;  whereas,  the  churches  in  Rome 
were  in  sequestered  places,  and  seemed  to  avoid  the 
gaze  of  the  heathen  inquirer.  During  the  winter  of 
302-3,  the  great  question  of  the  policy  to  be  adopted 
towards  the  Christians  was  debated,  first  in  a  private 
conference  between  Diocletian  and  Galerius.  Diocle- 
tian, though  urged  by  his  vehement  partner  in  the 
empire,  was  averse  to  sanguinary  proceedings.  He 
agreed  to  dismiss  the  Christians  from  posts  of  rank  and 
authority,  and  expel  them  from  the  palace  and  army. 
The  Christians  now  formed  a  considerable  part  of  the 
army.  They  were  permitted  to  abstain  from  idolatrous 
conformity,  but  they  were  sometimes  charged  with 
contempt  for  the  auspices.  The  soothsayer,  when 
disappointed  in  the  appearance  of  the  entrails  of  the 
victims,  denounced  the  presence  of  the  profane  strangers. 
Such  incidents  to  a  superstitious  soldiery*  were  full  of 
danger  and  death  to  the  Christians.  The  palace  of 
Diocletian  was  divided  by  conflicting  factions.  Some 
of  the  chief  officers  of  the  Emperor's  household  openly 
professed  Christianity;  his  wife  and  daughter  were 
favorably  disposed  to  the  same  cause.  The  mother  of 
Galerius  was  a  fanatical  Pagan.  The  oracle  of  Apollo 
at  Miletus  was  consulted,  and  persecution  soon  began. 
Diocletian,  overcome  by  the  importunity  of  friends, 
consented   that  the  church   at   Nicomedia   should   be 


♦"Nowhere  did  the  old    Roman  religion   retain  so  much   hold 
upon  the  mind  as  among  the  sacred  eagles." 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        93 

destroyed,  but  with  no  loss  of  life.  Galerius  wished 
all  who  refused  to  sacrifice  to  be  burnt  alive.  At  the 
dawn  of  day  the  Prefect  of  the  city  appeared  at  the 
door  of  the  church.  The  doors  were  instantly  thrown 
down ;  the  Pagans  beheld  with  surprise  the  vacant 
space,  looking  in  vain  for  the  statue  of  the  Deity. 
The  sacred  books  were  burned  and  the  furniture  of  the 
building  plundered  by  the  soldiers.  The  leaders  of  the 
Praetorian  guard  advanced  with  their  tools,  and  in  a  few 
hours  the  building  consecrated  by  the  prayers  and 
penitent  tears  of  the  Christians  was  razed  to  the 
ground.  The  Christians  awaited  in  consternation  the 
promulgation  of  the  fatal  edict.  It  was  soon  issued. 
It  was  a  rigorous  proscription,  short  of  the  punishment 
of  death.  It  comprehended  all  orders.  The  sacred 
books  were  to  be  delivered  up  by  the  bishops  and 
proselytes  to  the  imperial  officers  and  publicly  burned. 
The  property  of  the  churches  was  confiscated,  whether 
lands  or  furniture.  Christians  of  distinction  were 
deprived  of  their  offices.  All  assemblies  for  public 
worship  were  prohibited — those  of  the  plebeian  order 
were  deprived  of  the  right  of  Roman  citizenship.  This 
secured  to  them  the  sanctity  of  their  persons  from 
corporal  punishment  or  torture.  This  dreadful  edict 
was  no  sooner  affixed  in  the  usual  place  than  it  was 
torn  down  by  the  hands  of  a  rash,  indignant  Christian. 
His  life  was  soon  forfeited.  He  was  roasted  alive ! 
Suddenly  a  fire  broke  out  in  the  palace  at  Nicomedia, 
which  spread  almost  to  the  chamber  of  the  Emperor. 
No  one  knew  the  origin  of  this  conflagration.  It  was 
ascribed  to  the  Christians.  They  retorted  by  saying 
that  Galerius  was  the  guilty  author  in  order  to 
criminate   the    Christians   and    alarm    Diocletian    into 


94        ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

Still  more  violent  measures.  The  consequences  were 
most  disastrous  to  the  Christians.  The  officers  of  the 
household  and  the  inmates  of  the  palace  were  subjected 
to  cruel  tortures.  Anthimus,  the  Bishop  of  Nicomedia, 
was  beheaded.  In  every  part  of  the  world  Christianity- 
was  assailed  by  the  full  force  of  the  civil  power. 
Many  were  executed,  many  burned  alive,  many  were 
bound  in  prison  ;  some,  with  stones  round  their  necks, 
were  rowed  in  boats  to  the  middle  of  the  lake  and  thrown 
into  the  water.  From  Nicomedia — the  center  of  the 
persecution — went  forth  edicts  and  letters  east  and 
west  to  restore  the  ancient  religion  and  suppress  the 
hostile  faith.  The  fierce  temper  of  Maximian  readily 
acceded  to  carry  into  effect  the  barbarous  edicts.  Vague 
rumors  of  insurrection  in  regions  densely  peopled  with 
Christians  gave  some  countenance  to  the  charge  of 
political  ambition  brought  against  the  Christians.  About 
this  time  Diocletian  celebrated  a  triumph  at  Rome ;  but 
weary  of  the  cares  of  State,  soon  after  his  return  to 
Nicomedia  he  laid  aside  the  robes  of  P^mpire.  He  was 
seized  with  a  depressing  malady,  which  secluded  him 
for  a  long  time  in  his  palace.  It  is  not  known  how  he 
was  affected,  as  the  secrets  of  the  palace  did  not  reach 
the  popular  ear.  He  retired  to  Illyria,  on  the  Adriatic. 
It  is  said  he  devoted  his  attention  to  horticulture.  His 
colleague,  Maximian,  followed  reluctantly  the  example 
of  his  patron  and  coadjutor.  The  abdication  of  Dio- 
cletian left  the  most  implacable  enemy  of  the  Christians, 
Galerius,  master  of  the  East.  Maxentius,  son  of 
Maximian,  assumed  the  purple  in  the  West.  He  was 
more  remarkable  for  his  licentiousness  than  for  his 
persecuting  spirit.  During  the  persecutions,  Con- 
stantius   alone,    of  all  the    Emperors,    by   a   dextrous 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  95 

appearance  of  submission,  had  screened  the  Christians 
of  Gaul  and  Britain.  The  persecution  had  now  lasted 
six  or  seven  years  (a.  d.  309),  but  in  no  part  of  the 
world  did  Christianity  betray  any  signs  of  vital  decay. 
Constantine,  son  of  Constantius  (the  first  Christian 
Emperor),  had  been  placed  as  a  hostage  in  the  power 
of  Galerius.  Feeling  his  condition  insecure,  he  deter- 
mined to  escape  from  his  honorable  captivity.  His 
father,  Constantius,  bequeathed  him  a  wise  example  of 
humanity  and  toleration.  His  mother,  Helena,  was  an 
active  and  devout  Christian.  It  is  probable  that  at  this 
time  the  Christians  looked  upon  Constantine  as  their 
protector  and  the  head  of  the  Christian  interest. 

The  most  signal  and  unexpected  triumph  was  over 
the  author  of  the  persecution.  Galerius,  in  the 
eighteenth  year  of  his  reign,  was  seized  with  a  loath- 
some malady.  An  ulcer  attacked  the  lower  part  of 
his  body  that  soon  proved  fatal.  "It  is  singular," 
says  Dean  Milman,  "that  the  disease  vulgarly  called 
'eaten  of  worms'  should  hav^e  been  the  destiny  of 
Herod  Agrippa,  of  Galerius,  and  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain."  From  the  dying  bed  of  Galerius  was  issued  an 
edict,  which,  while  it  apologized  for  severities  against 
the  Christians,  admitted  the  failure  of  the  measures  he 
had  adopted  for  its  suppression.  The  edict  permitted 
the  free  exercise  of  the  Christian  religion  and  made 
an  earnest  request  to  Christians  to  intercede  for  him  in 
their  prayers.  The  whole  Roman  world  witnessed  the 
confession  of  the  dying  Emperor.  The  edict  was 
issued  from  Sardica  in  the  name  of  Galerius,  Licinias 
and  Constantine  (Edict  of  Galerius,  311  a.  d.)  The 
last  persecution  of  the  Christians  under  Diocletian  is 
regarded  as  the  tenth  persecution.     The  prison  doors 


96        ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

were  now  thrown  open ;  the  mines  rendered  up  their 
laborers ;  long  trains  of  Christian  people  were  seen 
visiting  their  ruined  churches  and  former  places  of 
devotion.  But  Maximian,  the  Caesar  of  the  East, 
still  continued  his  harassing  oppressions.  He  restored 
the  Polytheistic  ceremonial  in  all  its  former  magnifi- 
cence. Armenia,  the  first  Christian  kingdom,  was 
subjected  by  him  to  severe  persecution. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        9/ 


CHAPTER   X. 

The  vices  of  Maximin  rendered  him  hateful  to  all. 
In  A.  D.  312  he  insulted  Valeria,  the  widow  of  Galerius 
and  daughter  of  Diocletian,  with  an  offer  of  marriage 
while  his  zvife  was  still  living.  Famine  and  pestilence 
ensued  through  all  the  dominions  of  Maximin.  The 
ecclesiastical  historians  of  that  period  claim  no  exemp- 
tion from  the  general  calamity,  but  declare  with  strong 
approval  that  the  Christians  displayed  everywhere  the 
offices  of  humanity  and  brotherhood.  The  sufferers 
who  survived  the  widespread  evils  of  the  time  declared 
that  Christianity  was  stronger  than  the  love  of  kindred. 
The  Diocletian  persecution  reached  Britain,  but  did  not 
long  continue  there,  as  Constantius  was  humane  in  his 
temper  and  favorably  affected  toward  the  Christians  on 
account  of  his  Christian  wife  Helena,  a  British  lady. 

There  is  a  story  told  of  a  British  martyr  named 
Alban,  who  was  a  Roman  soldier.  A  presbyter,  flying 
from  his  persecutors,  took  refuge  in  his  house.  Alban 
threw  on  the  dress  of  the  ecclesiastic,  and  was  taken  in 
his  stead.  When  carried  to  the  tribunal,  he  proclaimed 
himself  a  christian,  and  was  beheaded.  A  church  was 
built  upon  the  spot  where  he  suffered,  and  was  called 
St.  Alban's. 

Those  who  suffered  the  loss  of  all  except  their  lives 
were  called  confessors. 

The  victory  of  Constantine  over  Maxentius  left 
Constantine  master  of  Rome.  He  and  Licinius  reigned 
over   all    the    European    provinces.      At  the   death   of 


98  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Maximin  (a.  d.  312)  the  last  hope  of  Paganism,  to  main- 
tain itself  by  the  civil  government,  perished.  Eusebius 
gives  a  gorgeous  description  of  the  reconstruction  of  a 
church  at  Tyre.  It  was  built  on  the  old  site  of  the 
church  where  they  had  at  first  worshiped  Jesus  the  Son 
of  Mary.  The  splendor  of  this  second  building  proves 
that,  even  before  the  accession  of  Constantine,  the 
Christians  possessed  sufficient  wealth  to  erect  stately 
temples.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the  fact  that 
the  biography  of  the  bishops  of  Rome,  their  influence 
and  peculiar  character,  are  involved  in  dimness  and 
obscurity.  Gleams  of  light  bring  out  occasionally  the 
names  of  Victor,  Zephyrinus,  Callistus,  Stephen,  Clem- 
ent, Cornelius;  "but  the  same  providential  obscurity 
that  veiled  the  growing  Church  threw  its  modest  con- 
cealment over  the  person  of  the  bishop."  *  But  when 
the  emperor  of  the  civilized  world  adopts  Christianity 
as  his  religion,  the  bishop  who  presides  over  the  Chris- 
tian clergy  becomes  at  once  a  prominent  functionary. 
An  appeal  to  the  emperor,  so  long  as  Rome  is  aij  impe- 
rial residence,  is  an  appeal  to  the  bishop  of  Rome. 

Melchiades  held  the  See  of  Rome  at  the  time  of 
Constantiue's  conversion,  but  Sylvester  soon  succeeded 
him  (a.  d.  312-314).  Not  one  of  the  bishops  of  Rome 
down  to  Leo  and  Gregory  the  Great  appear  among  the 
distinguished  writers  of  Christendom. 

The  fate  of  Rome  and  of  Paganism  was  decided  in 
the  battle  of  Milrian  Bridge.  Magnentius,  the  opposing 
general  to  Constantine,  was  utterly  routed  and  slain. 
It  was  commonly  reported  that  Constantine,  on  march- 
ing to  Rome,  had  a  vision  of  a  cross  in  the  sky,  with 

•  Milman. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  99 

this  inscription  :  /;/  hoc  signo  vince — by  this  sign  con- 
quer. This  vision  was  followed  by  a  dream,  which 
directed  him  to  cause  a  standard  to  be  made,  to  be 
carried  at  the  head  of  the  army,  with  the  sacred  sign 
and  inscription.  The  shaft  of  the  celebrated  standard, 
called  the  Labanim,  was  cased  with  gold.  Above  the 
transverse  beam  was  wrought,  in  a  golden  crown,  the 
monogram,  or  the  device  of  two  letters  which  signified 
the  name  of  Christ.  This  Labaruni  was  certainly  borne 
aloft  by  the  officers  of  Constantine,  but  this  is  the  only 
undisputed  point  connected  with  this  interesting  matter. 
Some,  in  Constantine's  day,  really  believed  that  our 
Lord  had  condescended  to  place  a  token  in  the  firma- 
ment, to  convince  this  man  of  the  truth  of  his  religion. 
Others  suppose  that  his  excited  mind  imagined  that  he 
saw  a  cross  in  the  heavens  above  him.  Another  theory 
is  that  it  was  an  ambitious  invention  of  Constantine,  to 
impress  the  Christian  legions  of  his  army,  who  would, 
with  such  a  standard,  be  animated  to  greater  enthu- 
siasm. The  object  to  be  obtained,  the  triumph  of 
Christianity  over  Paganism,  seems  not  unworthy  of  a 
miracle,  and  nothing  is  impossible  with  God  ;  yet  the 
subsequent  life  of  this  great  man  has  induced  the  belief 
in  many  minds  that  the  third  theory  was  the  true  one. 
Many  learned  and  dispassionate  writers,  however,  ac- 
cept the  second  theory.  A  natural  phenomenon,  they 
suppose,  was  interpreted  by  the  excited  vision  of  the 
general  to  be  a  miraculous  sign.  ' '  Of  all  the  emperors 
who  had  been  invested  with  the  purple,  either  as 
Augustus  or  Caesar,  during  the  persecution  of  the 
Christians,  his  father  only,  the  Protector  of  Christianity, 
had  gone  to  an  honored  and  peaceful  grave  !  "  His 
mother,  Helena,  too,  was  an  earnest  Christian,  though 


lOO  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH     OF    CHRIST. 

her  history  has  come  down  to  us  more  in  connection 
with  her  reverence  for  sacred  places,  than  any  enlighten- 
ment of  Christian  doctrine  and  duty.  This,  however, 
is  not  to  be  attributed  to  any  defect  in  her  Christian 
morals,  but  to  the  superstitious  views  of  her  biographers. 

The  first  public  edict  of  Constantine  in  favor  of 
Christianity  is  lost.  That  issued  at  Milan,  in  the  joint 
names  of  Licinius  and  Constantine,  is  the  great  charter 
of  the  liberties  of  Christianity ;  but  it  is  an  edict  of 
full,  unlimited  toleration,  and  no  more.  The  churches 
that  had  been  destroyed,  or  property  alienated,  were  to 
be  restored  and  secured,  but  the  same  freedom  of 
worship  was  allowed  to  Pagans. 

This  edict  *  has  the  tone  of  imperial  clemency, 
rather  than  conviction  that  Christianity  was  the  one  true 
religion. 

We  have  said  that  his  mother  was  a  Christian ; 
some  writers  suppose  that  she  became  a  convert  after 
her  sonf  proclaimed  himself  a  Christian.  Indeed,  on  the 
authority  of  Eusebius,  it  is  stated  that  she  derived  her 
knowledge  of  Christianity  from  her  son. 

Constantine,  though  a  great  general  and  most  con- 
summate statesman,  seemed  never  to  comprehend  fully 
the  doctrines  of  Christiaeity,  as  is  proved  by  his  post- 
ponement of  baptism  to  the  last  hour  of  his  life.  But 
his  obscure  views  of  Christian  truth  did  not  restrain  his 
liberality  to  the  Church.  Many  of  the  churches  of 
Rome  claim  the  first  Christian  emperor  as  their  founder. 
The  mo.st  distinguished  of  these,  says  Milman,  stood  on 


*  Edict  of  Milan. 

tThis  is  not  probable.  The  husband  of  Helena  was  the  Protector 
of  Christianity.  Christianity  had  long  existed  in  Britain,  ivlure  her  son 
Constantine  was  born. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  10 1 

the  sites  now  occupied  by  the  Lateran  and  St.  Peter's. 
If  it  could  be  known  at  what  period  in  the  Hfe  oPCon- 
stantine  these  churches  were  built,  some  light  might  be 
thrown  on  the  history  of  his  personal  religion.  As  the 
Lateran  was  an  imperial  palace,  the  grant  of  a  basilica 
(as  the  early  churches  were  called)  zvitJiin  the  walls,  was 
a  kind  of  direct  recognition,  if  not  of  his  own  personal 
attendance,  at  least  of  his  admission  of  Christianity 
within  the  domestic  circle.  This  palace  (the  Lateran) 
was  afterwards  granted  to  the  Christians,  the  first  patri- 
mony of  the  popes. 

Constantine's  life  and  actions  have  been  examined 
by  Pagans  and  Christians  with  the  most  severe  scrutiny. 
Two  crimes  of  the  deepest  dye  are  imputed  to  him  — 
the  execution  of  his  eldest  son  Crispus*  and  his  wife 
Fausta.  Historians  are  not  determined  whether  the 
cause  of  the  death  of  his  son  was  political  or  domestic 
jealousy.  Some  have  said  that  Fausta,  the  stepmother, 
stimulated  by  ambition  for  her  own  sons,  induced  her 
husband  to  believe  that  Crispus,  who  was  popular  and 
beloved  for  many  heroic  deeds,  was  a  conspirator 
against  his  father  and  a  political  rival.  It  is  reported 
that  Constantine  discovered  too  late  that  his  suspicions 
were  groundless,  and,  filled  with  rage  and  remorse, 
directed  that  his  guilty  partner  should  be  sacrificed. 
Gibbon  doubts  the  execution  of  Fausta  ;  he  says  if  she 
was  put  to  death,  that  the  private  apartments  of  the 
palace  must  have  been  the  scene  of  her  execution.  An 
imperfect  and  obscure  narrative  of  the  Pagan  historian 
Zosimus  is  the  authority  upon  which  the  crimes  and 
death  of  Fausta  are  stated.  According  to  this  author, 
"the  ancient  tragedy  of   Hippolitus  and  Phedra  was 

*  Crispus'  death,  A.  D.  326. 


I02  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST, 

renewed  in  the  palace  of  Constantine."  Jerome  says 
that  several  years  elapsed  between  the  deaths  of  Crispus 
and  Fausta. 

Both  detraction  and  praise  were  directed  upon  every 
act  of  this  emperor  from  the  beginning  of  his  reign  to 
its  close.  But  so  great  a  change  did  his  statesmanlike 
acts  produce  in  the  Roman  empire,  that  his  reign  forms 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Christianity 
with  him  ascended  the  throne  of  the  Caesars,  but  it  was 
not  now  the  self-denying,  pure,  spotless  religion  of 
earlier  times.  Wealth  flowed  in,  producing  many  cor- 
ruptions.* It  was  said  by  one  of  the  pious  Fratricelli 
in  the  thirteenth  century  :  "  After  a  retro.spect  of  a 
thousand  years,  we  believe  that  the  gift  of  a  Roman 
Christian  emperor  was  a  fatal  boon  to  the   Church." 

The  Christians  of  apostolic  days,  and  those  imme- 
diately succeeding  them,  had  received  the  simple,  life- 
giving  doctrines  of  the  New  Testament  without  cavil, 
or  without  analytical  questionings.  They  knew  how  to 
live  and  how  to  die  for  Christ  and  His  truth.  But  with 
the  spread  of  Christianity  among  Pagan  nations,  and 
especially  among  the  Greeks,  momentous  and  deep 
questions  began  to  stir  the  depths  of  the  heart  and 
intellect  by  the  silent  working  of  the  new  faith.  The 
nature  of  the  Deity ;  the  state  of  the  soul  after  death ; 
the  origin  of  evil  ;  the  connection  of  the  physical  with 
the  moral  world — these  subjects  became  topics  with  the 
many,  and  were  no  longer  confined,' as  they  had  been, 
to  the  intellectual  few.  The  passions  of  men  became 
warmly  enlisted  in  questions  of  this  character.     Man- 

•  It  is  consoling  to  reflect  that  the  inner  life  of  Christianity  is  not 
known  to  history ;  much  that  was  pure,  self-sacrificing,  and  lovely, 
found  no  record  in  the  annals  of  the  busy  world." 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  IO3 

kind  within  the  Christian  sphere  seemed  to  retrograde 
to  the  stern  Jewish  spirit,  and  the  Old  Testament  began 
ta  dominate  over  the  gospel  of  Christ. 

The  first  civil  wars  which  divided  Christianity  were 
those  of  Donatisjfi  and  the  Trinitarian  controversy.  The 
Gnostic  and  Manichean  sects  were  rather  rival  religions 
than  Christian  factions.  Donatism  was  a  fierce  schism 
in  an  established  community.  It  began  in  a  disputed 
appointment  to  the  episcopal  dignity  at  Carthage.  The 
bishop  of  Carthage  was  at  this  time  probably  more 
influential  than  any  dignitary  in  the  West.  The  African 
churches  had  suffered  greatly  during  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian  and  the  invasion  of  Magnentius.  External 
troubles,  however,  did  not,  as  in  other  places,  compress 
the  body  of  Christians  into  compact  unity,  but  left 
behind  them  a  fatal  principle  of  disorganization. 

The  commanding  character  of  Cyprian  and  his  wri- 
tings had  elevated  the  episcopal  power  to  a  great  height. 


104  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

THE    DONATIST    CONTROVERSY. 

The  origin  of  the  unhappy  schism  that  divided  the 
Church  in  Africa,  though  somewhat  obscure,  has  been 
traced  to  the  following  circumstances.  It  seems  to 
have  been  more  a  question  of  courtesy  than  of  prin- 
ciple. Mensurius,  the  Bishop  of  Carthage,  dying  in 
311,  the  majority  of  the  people  and  clergy  elected 
Cecilian  to  the  vacant  chair.  Cecilian  was  consecrated 
by  the  Bishops  of  Africa  proper,  the  province  of  which 
Carthage  was  the  capital.  The  Bishops  in  Numidia 
who  had  formerly  been  present  at  the  consecration  of 
the  Bishop  of  Carthage,  were  greatly  offended  that  they 
had  not  been  invited  and  waited  for.  They  called  upon 
Cecilian  to  appear  before  them.  Cecilian  refused. 
This  contumacy  so  enraged  the  Numidian  Church,  that 
seventy  of  their  Bishops,  together  with  some  of  the 
clergy  of  Carthage,  declared  Cecilian  unworthy,  and 
appointed  Majorinus,  Jiis  Deacon,  Bishop  of  Carthage. 
The  Church  was  rent  into  two  factions  headed  by  two 
Bishops.  The  Donatists  brought  this  controversy 
before  Constantine  in  313.  The  Emperor  referred  the 
matter  to  Melchiades,  Bishop  of  Rome,  with  whom 
were  associated  nineteen  Bishops  from  Gaul  and  other 
countries.  They  decided  against  the  Donatists.  They 
then  tried  to  get  a  personal  decision  from  Constantine 
himself.  He  also  gave  his  voice  against  them.  The 
Donatists    accused    the   Emperor   of    an    unrighteous 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       I05 

decision.  The  wrath  of  Constantine  was  aroused.  He 
ordered  the  seditious  Bishops  to  be  banished.  As  the 
Donatist  party  were  numerous  and  powerful,  violent 
commotions  and  seditions  were  aroused  in  Africa.  This 
controversy  lasted  with  more  or  less  bitterness  for  a 
century.  The  7iaine,  it  is  said,  was  derived  from  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  their  number  who  suc- 
ceeded Majorinus  as  one  of  the  Bishops  of  Carthage. 
Cecilian  and  the  chief  minister,  Felix,  who  had  taken 
part  in  his  consecration,  were  acquitted  of  the  charges 
brought  against  them.  The  great  Augustine,  first  as 
Presbyter,  and  afterwards  as  Bishop  of  Hippo,  in  Africa, 
assailed  the  Donatists  vigorously  in  his  writings  and 
speeches;  he  did  much  to  impair  their  influence.  He 
roused  all  Christendom  against  them.  The  Donatists 
were  admitted  by  their  enemies  to  be  sound  in  doctrine 
and  not  censurable  in  their  lives.  But  a  party  of 
furious  fanatics,  composed  of  the  peasantry  and  rustic 
populace,  espousing  the  cause  of  the  Donatists,  defended 
them  by  force  of  arms,  filling  the  province  of  Africa 
with  rapine  and  slaughter.  This  schism  and  its  effects 
were  happily  confined  to  Africa.  Some  writers  say  // 
was  not  finally  extirpated  until  Mahometanism  entered 
these  regions.  Constantine  the  Great  did  much  for 
his  subjects.  His  wise  and  vigorous  administration  had 
given  comparative  peace  to  the  Empire.  He  had 
relieved  the  Chrhttans  from  persecution  and  all  his 
people  Irom  grievous  oppression.  He  had  made  two 
munificent  donations  to  maintain  the  ceremonial  of 
religion.  He  had  caused  the  famous  Labarum  to  be 
made  and  carried  at  the  head  of  the  army  to  increase 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  Christian  soldier;  he  had  admit- 
ted their  representatives  to  his  court ;  he  had  sought  by 


I06       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

prudence  and  wisdom  to  allay  the  fierce  feuds  in  Africa. 
He  was  present  at  the  great  Council  of  Nice — he  called 
himself  2.  Christian,  but  it  is  very  probable  that  he  was 
still  ignorant  of  the  real  character  and  the  profound 
truths  of  the  religion  of  Christ. 

We  have  alluded  to  a  trinitarian  controversy  that  dis- 
turbed the  peace  of  the  church,  after  the  accession  of  Con- 
stantine  the  Great  to  the  Empire.  The  first  Christians  had 
been  content  to  worship  the  Deity  as  revealed  in  the  Gos- 
pels and  Epistles.  They  repeated  with  devout  worship 
the  names  of  the  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost ;  they  rec- 
ognized the  attributes  of  God  as  claimed  by  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  and  the  personality  and  divinity  ascribed 
by  him  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  they  did  not  with 
analytical  accuracy  define  or  appropriate  peculiar  terms 
to  each  manifestation  of  the  Godhead.  The  birth, 
death  and  resurrection  of  Christ,  as  the  Son  of  God, 
and  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  were  truths  plainly 
revealed  and  received  by  the  faitJijid  in  all  countries 
where  the  seed  of  the  Gospel  had  been  sown.  Alex- 
andria became  about  this  time  the  fruitful  soil  of  specu- 
lative controversy.  Noctus,  of  Smyrna,  dwelt  with 
such  exclusive  zeal  on  the  unity  of  the  Godhead  as  to 
absorb  the  whole  Trinity  into  one  Being.  His  adver- 
saries called  him  and  his  followers  Patripassians,  as 
according  to  the  Noctian  theory  they  said,  the  Father 
must  have  suffered  on  the  cross.  Sabellianism,  how- 
ever, became  more  extensively  known.  Sabellius  was 
an  African  of  Cyrenaica,  a  Greek  province.  According 
to  his  theory,  it  was  the  same  Deity  who  existed  under 
different  forms  in  the  Father,  the  Son  and  the  Holy 
Ghost.  The  Sabellians  charged  those  who  differed 
from  them  with  a  Tritheistic  worship,  and  the  Trinita- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  lO/ 

rians  accused  the  Sabellians  of  annihilating  the  separate 
existence  of  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost.  But  Sabel- 
lianism  did  not  divide  Christianity  into  two  irrecon- 
cilable parties.  Alexander,  Bishop  ol  Alexandria, 
surrounded  by  his  Presbyters,  expressed  his  opinions 
freely  with  regard  to  the  Trinity.  This  produced  a 
discussion,  when  Arius,  one  of  the  Presbyters  present, 
declared  that  he  agreed  with  his  bishop  in  all  points 
except  in  the  self-existence  of  the  Son.  He  admitted 
the  ante-mundane  being  of  the  Son  and  Spirit  before 
all  worlds  existed,  but  there  was  a  time,  Arius  sup- 
posed, when  the  parent  Deity  dwelt  alone.  The 
divine  unity,  according  to  this  distinguished  heresiarch, 
was  broken  by  an  act  of  God's  sovereign  will,  in  cre- 
ating the  Son,  the  image  of  the  Father — the  vicegerent 
of  the  Divine  power,  and  the  intermediate  agent  in 
all  the  work  of  creation.  These  opinions,  as  it  is  well 
known,  produced  a  grievous  schism  in  the  church. 
The  indignant  Alexander  expelled  Arius  from  Alexan- 
dria; he  retired  to  Syria,  but  his  opinions  had  already 
spread  through  Egypt  and  Libya.  Two  distinguished 
prelates,  both  named  Eusebius,  adopted  the  opinions 
of  Arius  ;  One  of  these  was  the  ecclesiastical  historian, 
the  other  was  the  Bishop  of  the  important  city  of 
Nicomedia.  Throughout  the  East  this  Arian  contro- 
versy was  propagated  with  earnest  rapidity.  The  inter- 
ference of  the  emperor  was  again  demanded  (as  in  the 
question  of  the  Donatists),  to  allay  the  strife  which 
distracted  the  Christendom  of  the  East.  The  behavior 
of  Constantine  was  probably  counseled  or  guided  by 


*  It  is  said,  on  the  authority  of  Eusebius,  that  Constantine  at  the 
battle  of  Hadrianople,  in  A.  D.  323,  ordered  the, lives  of  his  enemies 
to  be  spared  and  offered  rewards  for  all  captives  brought  in  alive. 


I08       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

some  ecclesiastic  of  a  humane  and  conciliatory  spirit. 
The  letter  sent  by  Constantine  was  a  model  for  letters 
of  this  character.  His  letter  condemned  Alexander  for 
the  unnecessary  agitation  of  such  deep  mysteries,  yet 
unpractical  questions,  and  also  censured  Arius  for  not 
suppressing  in  respectful  silence  his  objections  to  the 
doctrines  of  his  Patriarch.  It  is  believed  by  those  who 
have  examined  this  letter  and  are  intimately  cognizant 
with  these  times,  that  the  hand  of  Hosius,  Bishop  of 
Cordova,  in  Spain,  is  to  be  traced  in  this  royal  and 
Christian  letter.  It  is  by  no  means,  says  Milman,  an 
improbable  conjecture  that  Hosius  was  the  Spaniard 
that  administered  to  Constantine  in  the  hour  of  mental 
agony  and  remorse  the  balm  of  Christian  penitence. 
Hosius  was  sent  to  Egypt  to  assuage  the  fierce  disputes 
that  agitated  that  country  from  the  mouths  of  the  Nile 
to  the  Cataracts,  on  the  subject  of  the  unity  of  God. 
A  general  council  of  the  heads  of  the  various  Christian 
communities  throughout  the  Roman  Empire  was  sum- 
moned by  the  imperial  mandate  to  establish  on  the 
consenting  authority  of  assembled  Christendom,  the 
true  doctrine  on  these  disputed  points,  f  In  the  month 
of  May  or  June  20th,  in  the  year  325,  met  the  great 
council  of  Nice.  Not  half  a  century  before,  the  Chris- 
tian Bishops  had  been  marked  as  the  objects  of  the 
most  cruel  insult  and  persecution.  They  had  been 
chosen  on  account  of  their  eminence  in  their  own  com- 
munities, as  the  victims  of  the  stern  policy  of  the 
government.  They  had  been  ex;iled,  set  to  work  in 
the  mines,  exposed  to  every  species  of  humiliation  and 
suffering.  Now,  they  were  assembled  under  the  im- 
perial sanction,  a  religious  senate  from  all  parts  of  the 

Nicene  Creed.     Council  of  Nice. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  lOp 

Empire,  at  least  from  the  Eastern  world  :  for  Italy- 
was  represented  by  only  two  Presbyters  from  Rome. 
Hosius,  the  good  bishop  to  whom  we  have  already 
alluded,  was  the  representative  for  Spain,  Gaul  and 
Britain.  The  public  establishment  of  post-horses  was 
commanded  to  afford  every  facility,  gratuitously,  for  the 
journey  of  the  assembling  clergy.  About  three  hun- 
dred bishops  were  present  at  this  famous  council. 
Presbyters,  Deacons,  acolytes  without  number,  and  a 
considerable  body  of  the  laity.  The  presence  of  the 
Emperor  himself  gave  great  weight  and  dignity  to  the 
assembly.  There  was  one  Bishop  from  Persia  and  one 
from  Scythia.  Hosius,  it  is  believed,  presided  at  this 
Council.  The  Bishop  of  Rome,  Julius  I.,  was  absent 
from  Nicea ;  he  was  also  absent  from  Sardica.  The 
Bishop  of  Rome,  by  his  absence,  happily  escaped  the 
dangerous  precedent  which,  might  hav;  been  raised,  by 
his  appearance  in  any  rank  inferior  to  the  Presidency. 
The  .council  sat  for  rather  more  than  two  months. 
Constantine  seems  to  have  been  present  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  time,  exhorting  the  members  of  the 
council  to  unity  and  harmony.  He  was  splendidly 
attired,  the  gold  and  precious  stones  upon  his  raiment 
were  dazzling  to  behold.  He  spoke  in  the  Latin  lan- 
guage, and  his  speech  was  interpreted  to  the  Greek 
bishops.  He  conversed  familiarly  with  the  Prelates  in 
the  best  Greek  he  could  command.  The  Nicene  Creed 
was  the  result  of  the  deliberations  of  this  grave  assem- 
bly. Hosius  of  Spain  was  the  first  who  signed  it. 
Five,  of  the  three  hundred  and  eighteen  bishops  pres- 
ent, contested  a  single  expression,  Homoousios,  of  one 
substance  with  the  Father.  Two  only  of  the  Jive  per- 
severed  in   opposition.     Arius  was  the  leader  of  the 


no  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

opposition.  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  and  Eusebiu.s  of 
Nicomedia  were  known  afterwards  as  Arians.  They 
consented  to  subscribe,  but  sent  the  creed  to  their 
people  with  a  comment  of  their  own.  The  Christian 
community  soon  regretted  their  error  in  requesting  the 
interference  of  the  emperor  in  their  reHgious  questions. 
The  power  which  exiled  the  heretic,  could  restore  him 
to  his  place  and  station.  Two  years  of  tranquillity 
passed  after  the  Council,  but  it  was  discovered  that 
Arianism  had  been  condemned,  not  extirpated.  In  the 
same  year  that  the  Council  of  Nice  sat,  occurred  the 
death  of  Crispus,  the  eldest  son  of  Constantine,  to 
whom  we  have  already  alluded.  It  is  said  the  tears 
and  prayers  of  Constantia,  his  sister,  and  the  earnest 
protestations  of  his  grandmother  were  interposed  in 
vain  to  save  his  life.  Whether  his  son  was  sacrificed 
to  political  or  domestic  jealousy,  can  never  be  known. 
The  former  is  the  most  probable.  Fausta,  the  step- 
mother, had  three  sons  to  occupy  the  throne  of  their 
father  when  Crispus  was  removed.  The  great  popu- 
larity and  ability  of  the  son,  perhaps  strengthened  the 
plausibility  of  the  alleged  conspiracy  against  his  father. 
When  Constantine  visited  Rome  after  the  death  or 
murder  of  his  son  (which  took  place  in  a  remote  dis- 
trict), he  received  many  insults ;  pasquinades,  charging 
him  with  cruelty  and  murder,  were  affixed  to  the  gates 
of  his  palace.  This  treatment  determined  him  to  leave 
Rome  and  never  revisit  it  more.  On  the  foundation  of 
Constantinople,  "the  master  of  the  Roman  world,"  says 
Gibbon,  "aspired  to  erect  an  eternal  monument  of  the 
glories  of  his  reign ;  he  employed  in  this  great  work 
the  wealth,  the  labor  and  all  that  remained  of  the 
genius  of  obedient  millions.     This  city  was  destined  to 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  I  I  I 

reign  in  future  times  the  mistress  of  the  East,  and  to 
survive  the  Empire  of  Constantine.  It  is  noiv,  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  though  still  in  the  possession  of 
the  Mohammedans,  the  object  of  mighty  contention 
between  the  most  powerful  Christian  nations  of  Europe.* 
The  rise  of  Constantinople  was  favorable  to  the  pro- 
gress of  Christianity.  It  removed  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment from  the  presence  of  those  awful  temples  to 
which  ages  of  glory  in  the  Roman  mind  had  attached 
much  sanctity.  It  broke  the  last  link  which  combined 
the  pontifical  with  the  imperial  character.  Constanti- 
nople was  not  a  pagan  city.  The  new  capital  had  no 
ancient  deities  whose  worship  was  connected  with 
majestic  buildings.  The  temples  of  old  Byzantium 
had  fallen  when  Severus  in  vengeance  razed  the  city  to 
the  ground.  No  expense  was  spared  to  raise  a  city 
worthy  of  the  seat  of  empire. 

By  the  command  of  Constantine,  the  cities  of 
Greece  and  Asia  were  despoiled  of  their  most  valuable 
ornaments.  The  productions  of  Phidias  and  Lysippus 
and  other  masters  of  art  were  brought  to  the  city  of 
Constantine.  These  sculptures  had  now  lost  all  reli- 
gious significance.  How  often  has  history  repeated 
itself  in  this  way,  let  modern  history  declare!  In  many 
of  the  cities  both  in  the  East  and  West  there  were 
large  buildings  called  Basilicas,  or  Halls  of  Justice. 
These  buildings,  says  Milman,  were  singularly  adapted 
for  the  Christian  worship.  Two  of  these,  the  Sessorian 
and  the  Lateran  in  Rome,  had  been  given  to  the  Chris- 
tians by  Constantine  as  churches  for  public  worship, 
and  many  others  were  afterwards  appropriated  for  the 
same  purpose.      By  the  consecration  of  the  Basilicas  to 

*  Written  during  the  late  war  of  the  Russians  and  Turks. 


112  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Christian  worship,  and  the  gradual  erecting  of  splendid 
churches  in  many  of  the  cities  of  the  East,  Christianity 
began  to  assume  an  outward  dignity  commensurate 
with  its  secret  moral  influence.  The  pious  activity  of 
Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine,  was  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  Palestine.  Splendid  churches  arose  over  the 
place  of  our  Lord's  birth  at  Bethlehem,  and  over  the 
place  of  his  burial,  near  the  supposed  Calvary,  and  over 
the  place  of  ascension,  on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  The 
church  called  at  first  the  Church  of  the  Resurrection, 
afterwards  that  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  was  very  mag- 
nificent. The  erection  of  these  churches  was  praise- 
worthy, grateful  to  Christian  hearts  in  all  ages;  but 
alas,  superstitious  ignorance  began  to  search  for  the 
wood  of  the  true  cross,  and  for  the  nails  that  were  used 
in  the  crucifixion.*  Jerusalem  had  been  trodden  down 
by  the  Gentiles  several  times  between  the  death  of 
Christ  and  the  accession  of  Constantine,  yet  names 
cling  to  remarkable  places  with  great  tenacity.  It  is 
possible,  therefore,  that  the  churches  in  Jerusalem  do 
cover  really  the  sacred  spots  so  much  venerated  by 
Christians. 

Eusebius,  bishop  of  Nicomedia,  seems  to  have 
succeeded  to  Hosius  in  the  influence  exercised  by  that 
great  prelate  over  the  mind  of  Constantine.  f  He  ac- 
companied the  emperor  in  his  visits  to  Jerusalem. 
Eusebius  was  an  Arian.  The  Arian  party  gradually 
grew  into  favor.  Constantia,  the  sister  of  Constantine, 
implored  her  brother  to  reconsider  the  sentence  of  ban- 
ishment pronounced  against  Arius.  An  imperial  man- 
date was  issued  to  receive  Arius  and  his  followers 
within  the  pale  of  the  Christian  communion,      Mean- 

*  Jerusalem,  24th  chapter.  fNot  in  excellence  and  wisdom. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  II3 

while  Athanasius,  who  had  borne  a  distinguished  part 
at  the  Council  of  Nice,  and  who  had  been,  at  thirty 
years  of  age,  placed  over  the  see  of  Alexandria,  deter- 
mined to  resist  the  command  of  the  emperor  in  relation 
to  Arius.  Athanasius  was  the  head  of  the  Trinitarian 
party,  and  refused  to  yield  to  the  wishes  of  the  em- 
peror. Many  frivolous  charges  were  brought  against 
Athanasius  by  his  enemies,  but  they  were  easily  dis- 
proved. At  length  he  was  charged  with  stopping  the 
supplies  of  corn  from  the  port  of  Alexandria,  upon 
which  Constantinople  depended.  Constantine  listened 
with  apparent  credulity,  and  thinking  it  dangerous  to 
leave  the  power  of  starving  the  capital  in  the  hands  of 
one  who  might  become  hostile  to  the  government,  the 
guiltless  and  firm  Athanasius  was  banished  to  the 
remote  city  of  Treves,  a.  d.  336.  Arius  was  recalled 
to  Constantinople.  Alexander  was  the  bishop  of  this 
city ;  he  refused  to  admit  Arius  to  the  orthodox  com- 
munion. The  Arians  threatened  to  force  their  way 
into  the  church.  As  he,  Arius,  was  being  carried  into 
a  church  he  was  suddenly  seized  with  the  paiiis  of 
death.  Alexander  at  the  moment  was  prostraie  at  the 
foot  of  the  altar,  determined  to  resist  the  approach  of 
Arius.  The  Catholics,  as  the  Trinitarians  were  now 
called,  considered  the  death  of  Arius  as  a  judgment  of 
God.  We  know  not  the  effect  of  this  event  upon,  the 
mind  of  Constantine,  but  it  did  not  change  his  mind 
with  regard  to  Athanasius.  He  continued  to  regard 
him  "as  proud,  intractable  and  turbulent."  It  was  not 
till  his  death-bed  that  he  consented  to  reinstate  the 
bishop  of  Alexandria.  Baptism  was  administered  to 
Constantine  in  his  last  illness. 

The  general  legislation  of  Constantine  bears    evi- 


114  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

dence  to  an  undercurrent  of  religious  opinion  and  feel- 
ing, independent  of  the  edicts  which  concerned  the 
Christian  community.  The  rescript  for  the  religious 
observance  of  the  Sunday,  which  enjoined  the  suspen- 
sion of  all  public  business  and  private  labor,  seems  to 
have  been  enjoined  upon  the  whole  Roman  people.  In 
one  instance  there  is  direct  authority  that  a  certain 
humane  measure  was  adopted  by  the  advice  of  an  in- 
fluential Christian.  It  is  this:  During  the  period  of 
anarchy  and  misery  that  preceded  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantine,  the  sale  of  infants  as  slaves,  and  their  expos- 
ure, infanticide,  too,  had  become  fearfully  common. 
Funds  were  now  assigned  for  the  food  and  clothing  of 
children  whose  parents  were  unable  to  support  them, 
and  as  this  measure  could  not  prevent  the  sale  of  chil- 
dren, parents  were  declared  incapable  of  reclaiming 
them  unless  they  paid  the  price  of  their  own  enfran- 
chisement. These  humane  edicts  were  issued  by  the 
advice  of  Lactantius,  a  Christian  philosopher,  to  whom 
had  been  entrusted  the  education  of  the  eldest  son  of 
Constantine. 

Gladiatorial  exhibitions  were  never  permitted  in  the 
lihv  capital.  The  master  of  a  slave  was  now  deprived 
of  the  arbitrary  power  of  life  and  death.  In  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  royal  domains  care  was  taken  not  to 
separate  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  children, 
brothers  and  sisters.  It  can  not  be  doubted  that  the 
stricter  moral  tone  of  Constantine's  legislation  emanated 
from  Christianity.  All  the  laws  passed  by  Constantine 
with  the  purpose  of  purifying  the  social  state,  in  regard 
to  divorce  and  unlawful  marriages,  were  afterwards  em- 
bodied in  the  Theodosian  Code,  together  with  the  ten 
commandments  (the  moral   law),    and    the    Apostles' 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  II5 

Creed.  During  the  reign  of  Constantine  Christianity 
was  extended  to  Ethiopia,  now  called  Nubia  and  Abys- 
sinia. The  Ethiopians  attained  a  degree  of  civilization, 
and  Arabian  commerce  was  kept  up  with  the  other  side 
of  the  Red  Sea.  Inscriptions  recently  discovered  in 
Nubia  prove  that  Greek  letters  made  considerable 
progress  among  this  barbarous  people.  These  con- 
versions somewhat  indemnified  Christianity  for  the 
losses  sustained  in  Persia  by  the  restoration  of  the 
ancient  faith  in  that  country,  a.  d.  250. 

In  the  reading  of  church  history  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  when  the  Christian  Episcopate  passes  calmly 
down  through  a  succession  of  beneficent  and  pious  pre- 
lates, little  is  said  of  them  by  the  annalist,  either  of 
church  or  State.  The  quiet  but  earnest  Christian  who 
lessens  the  mass  of  human  misery  by  his  daily 
charities,  and  who  encourages  the  faint  and  weary  by 
his  strong  faith  and  love,  is  beloved  and  honored  by  his 
generation  ;  but  he  may  furnish  no  materials  to  the  chron- 
icler to  hand  down  to  posterity.  But  in  times  of  ex- 
citement, in  a  contested  election  like  that  of  Liberius  in 
352,  successor  to  Julius  I,  and  still  worse  in  the  case  of 
Damasus  and  Ursicius,  when  the  partisans  of  each  of 
these  men  sought  to  elect  their  favorite ;  unschooled 
in  experience,  they  little  thought  how  much  they 
would  sully  the  purity  of  their  priestly  robes  by  their 
vain  contentions.  The  records  oi  these  matters,  made  by 
heathen  pens,  often  exaggerated  the  fierceness  of  the 
contestants.  The  great  Jerome,  however,  was  at  Rome 
when  the  contest  about  Damasus  occurred.  He  be- 
comes the  historian,  and  bitterly  laments  the  circum- 
cumstances.      Self-seeking  is  a  destructive  foe  to  the 


Il6  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

love  and  peace  so  constantly  enjoined  by  the  Master 
they  professed  to  serve.* 

Athanasius  was  an  exile  in  Belgium  at  the  death  of 
Constantine.  Constantius,  though  an  Arian,  consented 
to  his  return.  "  He  entered  Alexandria  at  the  head  of  a 
triumphal  procession,  a.  d.  340.  The  bishops  of  his 
party  resumed  their  sees.  The  Arian  party  in  Syria 
continued  to  wage  a  war  against  him. 


*  The  cross  is  the  beautiful  symbol  of  self-denial,  but  alas,  self-seek- 
ing is  often  suspected  in  the  nineteenth  century,  as  well  as  it  was  in 
the  fourth  century.     It  is  more  covert  now. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  11/ 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Athanasius  stands  out  as  the  prominent  character 
of  this  period  in  the  history,  not  merely  of  Christianity, 
but  of  the  world.  Athanasius  was  born  at  Alexandria, 
about  A.  D.  298.  He  succeeded  to  the  see  of  Alexan- 
dria when  he  was  28  years  of  age.  For  half  a  century 
he  was  the  head  of  the  orthodox  party  in  the  Arian 
controversy.  When  Gregory,  of  Cappadocia,  took  for- 
cible possession  of  his  see,  Athanasius  fled  to  Rome 
for  protection  :  a  provincial  council  held  at  Rome,  and 
a  large  council  soon  afterwards  assembled  at  Sardica, 
acquitted  him  fully  of  all  charges  brought  against  him. 
Constantius  continued  to  persecute  him  after  the  death 
of  Constans.  He  concealed  himself  at  Alexandria  for 
two  years  and  then  retired  to  Egypt  and  lived  among 
hermits  until  the  death  of  Constantius.  In  this  retire- 
ment he  wrote  some  of  his  best  works.  The  creed 
ascribed  to  him  is  spurious,  as  is  proved  from  the  best 
authorities.  On  the  accession  of  Julian  he  returned  to 
his  see,  but  the  Pagans  and  Arians  again  uniting,  in- 
duced Julian  to  banish  him  again.  He  died,  however, 
at  last  in  the  possession  of  the  patriarchate  of  Alexan- 
dria, in  373. 

Basil,  bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia,  was  famous 
for  his  skill  in  debate  and  eloquence. 

Gregory  of  Nazianzen  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa  ob- 
tained much  renown.  Their  works  show  that  they  were 
worthy  to  be  esteemed. 

Among  the  Syrians,  Ephriam  made  his  name  im- 


Il8  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

mortal  by  the  sanctity  of  his  Hfe,   and  by  numerous 
writings. 

Cyril,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  was  born  about  315. 
He  succeeded  Maximus  as  bishop  about  340.  The 
Arian  controversy,  together  with  his  dispute  with  Aca- 
cius,  bishop  of  Caesarea,  respecting  the  priority  of  their 
episcopal  sees,  caused  him  to  be  twice  deposed.  Of  his 
works  there  are  twenty-three  lectures  extant ;  they  are 
considered  as  an  invaluable  treasure,  as  they  contain  a 
complete  system  of  theology,  and  a  circumstantial  ac- 
count of  the  rites  of  the  Church  at  so  early  a  time. 
These  lectures  were  written  when  he  was  a  Presbyter; 
he  wrote  on  the  Apostles'  creed,  baptism,  confirmation, 
and  the  Lord's  supper. 

Tiberius  was  bishop  of  Rome  in  352.  It  appears 
from  the  letters  of  Tiberius,  also  from  the  testimony  of 
Jerome,  and  of  Hilary  of  Poictiers,  that  this  bishop 
boldly  resisted  the  Arians,  and  was  banished  in  conse- 
quence to  Berea,  in  Thrace ;  but  at  the  end  of  two 
years,  he  became  so  eager  to  return  to  his  bishopric, 
that  he  consented  to  subscribe  to  the  Arian  creed  set 
forth  by  the  third  council  of  Sirmium. 

When  Rome,  after  the  death  of  Constans,  was  under 
the  dominion  of  Constantius,  Arianism  triumphed  for  a 
time.  The  history  of  the  Church,  under  Constantius, 
presents  a  most  stormy  period,  and  of  a  war  among 
brethren  which  was  carried  on  without  religion  or  hu- 
manity. On  the  death  of  Constantius,  in  362,  the 
prosperous  days  of  Arianism  were  ended. 

Julian,  called  the  Apostate,  succeeded  to  the  empire 
of  the  sons  of  Constantine.  Amid  much  intestine  strife 
within  the  pale  of  Christianity,  Julian  ascended  the 
throne  of  the  Roman  empire,  a.  d.  362.    Julian  was  the 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  I  I9 

nephew  of  Constantine  the  Great ;  at  the  death  of  Con- 
stantius  he  was  the  only  surviving  descendant  of  the 
once  numerous  family  of  Constantius  Chlorus.  Julian 
seems  to  have  hated  his  cousin,  the  emperor,  with  bit- 
terness, and  Constantius,  it  is  said,  was  jealous  of  the 
popularity  and  rising  talents  of  Julian.  Nothwithstand- 
ing  the  alleged  alienation  that  existed  between  the  two 
cousins,  Julian  married  Helena,  the  sister  of  Constan- 
tius, and  was  associated  with  him  in  the  empire. 

Julian  was  at  Athens  when  he  was  called  to  share  in 
the  toils  and  glories  of  the  empire.  He  appeals  to  the 
people  of  Athens  to  witness  his  tears  of  sorrow  in  sepa- 
rating himself  from  the  schools  of  the  new  Platonic 
philosophy.  He  had  spent  six  months  in  the  groves  of 
the  academy,  with  the  philosophers  of  the  age,  who 
sought  to  inflame  the  devotion  of  their  royal  pupil. 
He  approached  with  horror,  his  historians  say,  the 
palace  at  Milan ;  though  he  constantly  suspects  his 
cousin  of  treachery,  he  gratefully  acknowledges  the 
steady  friendship  of  the  empress  Eusebia.  She  met  him 
at  her  husband's  court  with  the  tenderness  of  a  sister. 
"After  an  obstinate,  though  secret  struggle,"  says  Gib- 
bon, "the  opposition  of  the  eunuchs  yielded  to  the 
ascendency  of  the  empress,  and  Julian  was  appointed, 
with  the  title  of  Caesar,  to  reign  over  the  countries 
beyond  the  Alps." 

The  provinces  of  Gaul  were  overwhelmed  with  a 
deluge  of  barbarians  ;  the  Sarmatians  (the  modern 
Poles  and  Russians),  no  longer  respected  the  barrier  of 
the  Danube ;  the  Persian  monarch,  who  was  still  to  be 
feared,  threatened  the  peace  of  Asia,  both  in  the  east 
and  in  the  west.  The  presence  of  an  emperor  was  re- 
quired.     Constantius  now  acknowledged  his  inabihty  to 


120       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

control  so  great  an  extent  of  dominion.  Constantius 
did  not  consult  the  senate  in  the  choice  of  a  colleague, 
but  he  was  anxious  to  have  the  approval  of  the  army. 
Surrounded  by  the  troops  whose  stations  were  near 
Milan,  he  ascended  on  this  solemn  occasion  to  his  lofty 
tribunal,  holding  by  the  hand  his  cousin  Julian,  who 
entered  on  that  day  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  his  age. 

Immediately  after  his  investiture,  Julian  proceeded 
to  Paris,  assuming  the  government  of  Gaul,  and  with 
the  command  of  the  forces,  intended  to  drive  the  Ger- 
man invaders  beyond  the  Rhine.  With  much  skill  and 
energy,  he  effected  this  undertaking,  and  also  checked 
the  rapacity  of  the  local  governors.  His  military 
energy  and  administrative  ability,  together  with  his 
gracious  manners,  made  him  a  great  favorite  with  his 
troops.  Reports  of  Julian's  popularity  soon  reaching 
Constantius,  it  excited  a  jealous  hostility. 

In  360,  Constantius  sent  a  mandate  to  Julian,  to  send 
three  of  his  best  legions  to  the  east,  to  assist  in  conduct- 
ing the  war  in  Persia.  Disgusted  with  this  requirement, 
and  feeling  that  it  proceeded  from  the  suspicious  hos- 
tility of  Constantius,  he  determined  to  accede  to  the 
earnest  wishes  of  his  attached  soldiery.  He  assumed 
the  purple.  The  troops,  with  great  unanimity  and 
enthusiasm,  proclaimed  him  emperor. 

The  domestic  connection  which  might  have  recon- 
ciled the  brother  and  husband,  was  recently  dissolved 
by  the  death  of  the  princess  Helena. 

Julian  now  prepared  to  decide  the  question  of  his 
title  to  Augtisiiis,  by  a  civil  war.  He  was  marching  to 
attack  Constantinople,  when  he  heard  of  the  death  of 
Constantius  in  Cilicia;  this  death  left  him  undisputed 
lord  of  the  empire.     His  short  reign  of  two  years,  would 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       121 

find  no  place  in  this  abridged  history,  except  for  his 
strenuous  but  fruitless  efforts  to  restore  Paganism,  and 
the  interesting  history  of  his  abortive  effort  to  rebuild 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem. 

A  few  weeks  before  Julian  determined  upon  civil 
war,  he  had  celebrated  the  Christian  feast  of  Epiphany  ; 
up  to  this  time,  he  had  concealed  from  his  most  intimate 
friends  his  hatred  of  Christianity  and  his  unbelief  of  the 
Christian  system.  He  now  publicly  renounced  the  re- 
ligion in  which  he  had  been  instructed.  He  had  once 
been  a  reader  in  the  Church  of  Nicomedia,  but  it  is  very 
evident  to  one  who  reads  his  life,  that  he  never  sincerely 
embraced  the  New  Testament.  His  life  was  full  of 
dissimulation.  He  is  called  an  apostate  from  a  faith  of 
which  he  was  never  a  true  disciple.  Historians  say, 
"the  unchristian  Christianity  of  Constantius  must  bear 
some  part  of  the  guilt  of  Julian's  apostasy."  Constan- 
tius had  sentenced  to  death  Gallus,  the  brother  of 
Julian,  and  is  also  accused  of  the  murder  of  the  father 
of  Julian.  Constantius  was  an  Arian,*and  a  fierce  per- 
secutor. On  his  death-bed  he  made  a  bequest  of  the 
empire  to  Julian.  It  is  said  that  Julian's  youth  was 
committed  to  the  instruction  and  direction  of  supersti- 
tious ecclesiastics,  who  required  of  him  a  course  of  strict 
ceremonial  observances:  the  midnight  vigil,  the  fast, 
the  long  and  weary  prayer,  and  visits  to  the  tombs  of 
martyrs,  rather  than  an  initiation  into  the  principles  of 
the  Gospel.  He  remained  a  stranger  to  the  originality, 
the  beauty,  and  the  depth  of  Christian  morals,  and  true 
Christian  sentiment.  His  teachers  seem  to  have  been 
"blind  leaders  of  the  blind."    Julian  himself  gives  this 

*  We  do  not   believe,  or   mean   to   insinuate,  that  the  persecuting 
spirit  of  Constantius  was  the  result  of  his  Arian  opinions. 


122       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

account,  perhaps  exaggerated  and  prejudiced,  of  his 
instructors:  For  six  years,  he  says,  when  he  hved 
with  his  brother  Gallus  in  a  fortress  of  Asia  Minor,  he 
was  deprived  of  every  kind  of  useful  instruction. 

The  first  care  of  JuHan,  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  the  Roman  empire,  was  to  restore  Paganism 
and  extirpate  Christianity.  The  temples  were  every- 
where to  be  restored  to  their  former  magnificence ; 
where  they  had  been  destroyed  by  the  zeal  of  the 
Christians,  large  fines  were  levied  on  the  communities, 
and  became  a  pretext  for  the  most  grinding  exactions 
and  in  some  instances  cruel  persecutions.  It  is  said 
that  Julian  meditated  a  complete  course  of  religious  in- 
struction, in  the  Platonic  philosophy.  But  he  was  not 
content  merely  with  the  moral  regeneration  of  Pagan- 
ism, but  attempted  to  bring  back  the  public  mind  to  the 
sanguinary  ritual  of  sacrifice.  "Julian  himself  zuashed 
off  his  Christian  baptism  by  the  oriental  rite  of  asper- 
sion by  blood."  His  credulity  and  superstition  in 
Paganism,  seem  to  have  been  quite  equal  to  any  super- 
stition that  his  earlier  teachers,  as  he  alleges,  required 
of  him.  Julian  was  a  more  perspicuous  writer  than 
any  of  the  philosophers  that  surrounded  him.  They 
seem  to  to  have  been  degenerate  disciples  of  Plato. 

To  the  Christians,  Julian  assumed  the  language  of 
liberal  toleration.  He  abridged  many  of  the  privileges 
of  the  Christians,  and  closed  their  schools.  He  imita- 
ted the  benevolence  of  the  Christians  so  obviously,  in 
connecting  hospitals  with  his  Pagan  institutions,  that 
he  was  called  the  "  ape  of  Christianity." 

"  While  Julian  labored  with  very  partial  success  in 
attempting  to  restore  the  religion  of  his  ancestors,  he 
embraced,"  says  Gibbon,  "the  extraordinary  design  of 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  123 

rebuilding  the  temple  of  Jerusalem."  The  vain  and 
ambitious  mind  of  Julian  (these  are  the  words  of  Gib- 
bon), aspired  to  restore  the  ancient  glory  of  the  temple 
of  Jerusalem.  As  the  Christians  were  persuaded  that 
a  sentence  of  everlasting  destruction  had  been  pro- 
nounced against  this  temple,  the  imperial  sophist  would 
have  converted  the  success  of  his  enterprise,  into  an 
argument  against  the  faith  of  prophecy,  and  the  truth 
of  Revelation.  Julian  therefore  resolved  to  erect  on 
the  eminence  of  Mount  Moriah,  a  stately  temple  which 
should  eclipse  the  splendor  of  the  Church  of  the  Resur- 
rection, on  the  adjacent  Hill  of  Calvary,  built  by 
Constantine  under  the  superintendence  of  Helena,  his 
mother. 

Among  the  friends  of  Julian,  the  first  place  was 
assigned  to  Alypius.  This  able  minister  of  the  emperor 
obtained  the  support  of  the  governor  of  Palestine.  The 
Jews  assembled  in  great  numbers  to  assist  in  the  work 
of  rebuilding  on  the  holy  mountain  of  their  fathers, 
their  beautiful  house.  But  the  united  efforts  of  Jews 
and  Pagans  were  unsuccessful.  Ammianus,  a  Pagan, 
has  recorded  in  the  history  of  his  own  times  the  won- 
derful obstacles  which  prevented  the  restoration  of  the 
Jewish  temple.  We  quote  from  Gibbon,  who  quotes 
Ammianus:  "Whilst  Alypius,  assisted  by  the  gov- 
ernor, urged  the  work  with  great  vigor,  the  execution 
was  suddenly  stopped  by  horrible  balls  of  fire,  breaking 
out  near  the  foundations,  which  rendered  the  place 
inaccessible  to  the  scorched  and  blasted  workmen — the 
victorious  element  continuing  in  this  manner,  ultimately 
drove  them  away — the  undertaking  was  abandoned." 


124       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

How  charming  is  divine  Philosophy  ! 
Not  harsh  and  crabbed,  as  dull  fools  suppose, 
But  musical,  as  is  Apollo's  lute. 

' '  Michaelis,  "says  Guizot. ' '  has  given  us  an  ingenious 
and  probable  explanation  of  this  remarkable  incident,* 
which  the  positive  testimony  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus, 
a  contemporary  and  a  pagan,  will  not  permit  us  to  ques- 
tion. The  temple  of  Jerusalem  was  a  kind  of  citadel, 
which  had  its  own  walls.  The  porticos  themselves  were 
an  excellent  fortification.  There  was  a  fountain  of  con- 
stantly running  water ;  subterranean  excavations  under 
the  mountains ;  reservoirs  and  cisterns  to  collect  the 
rainwater.'' 

These  excavations  and  reservoirs  must  have  been 
large,  as  they  furnished  water  during  the  whole  siege  of 
Jerusalem  to  1,100,000  inhabitants,  for  whom  the  foun- 
tain of  Siloam  could  not  have  sufficed.  As  the  siege 
took  place  from  the  month  of  April  to  the  month  of 
August,  they  could  have  had  no  rainwater.  Josephus 
relates  several  incidents  which  show  the  extent  of  these 
excavations.  It  is  probable  that  the  greater  part  of 
these  excavations  were  the  remains  of  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon, as  the  people  were  too  poor  when  they  returned 
from  the  Captivity,  530  b.  c,  to  undertake  such  works. 
Herod  the  Great,  in  renovating  the  temple,  made  some 
excavations,  but  the  haste  with  which  the  improvements 
were  made  "  in  the  days  of  Herod  "  preclude  the  idea 

•Related  in  the  last  chapter. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  12$ 

that  they  belonged  to  his  period.  The  temple  was  de- 
stroyed A.  D.  70,  by  Titus ;  the  attempt  to  rebuild  it 
made  by  Julian,  and  the  fact  related  by  Ammianus,  co- 
incide with  the  year  363.  Between  these  two  epochs 
an  interval  had  elapsed  of  nearly  300  years,  during 
which  time  the  excavations,  having  choked  up  with 
ruins,  had  become  full  of  inflammable  air.  The  work- 
men employed  by  Julian,  as  they  were  digging,  would 
take  torches  to  explore  the  excavations ;  sudden  flames 
repelled  those  who  approached  ;  explosions  were  heard, 
and  these  phenomena  were  renewed  every  time  that 
the  subterranean  passages  were  penetrated.  "It  is  a 
fact  now  popularly  known,  that  when  mines  long  closed 
are  opened,  one  of  tzvo  things  takes  place.  The 
torches  are  either  extinguished,  and  the  men  swoon  or 
die ;  but  if  the  air  is  inflammable,  a  little  flame  is  seen 
to  flicker  around  the  lamp,  then  extends  till  the  confla- 
gration becomes  general  —  an  explosion  occurs,  and  all 
who  are  in  the  way  are  killed." 

Whether  the  designs  of  God  were  carried  out  by 
the  operation  of  natural  causes,  or  by  miracle,  it  makes 
no  difference  in  the  result.  It  is  certainly  beautiful  to 
trace  in  this  incident  of  the  operation  of  nature,  the  ful- 
fillment of  prophecy.  In  the  words  of  the  Psalmist, 
we  here  see,  "fire  and  hail;  snow,  and  vapor;  stormy 
wind  fulfilling  His  word."  The  temple  was  not  rebuilt; 
the  enemy  of  the  Christians,  the  apostate  Julian,  was 
not  allowed  to  carry  out  his  profane  designs.  But  on 
the  same  hill,  but  not  on  the  site,  where  once  stood  the 
glorious  temple  of  the  Lord  of  Hosts,  stands  a  Maho- 
metan mosque,  called  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  built  by 
Omar,  the  second  khalif,  in  644. 

Julian  assumed  that  he  was  not  a  persecutor,  but  in 


126  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

various  ways  he  caused  the  Christians  much  suffering, 
by  taunts,  by  contempt,  by  severe  oppression.  The 
monogram  of  Christ  disappeared  from  the  labarum,  or 
standard.  Heathen  symbols  everywhere  replaced  those 
of  Christianity.  As  the  troops  defiled  before  the  em- 
peror on  one  occasion,  each  man  was  ordered  to  throw 
a  few  grains  of  frankincense  upon  an  altar  which  stood 
before  him.  The  Christians  were  horror-stricken  when 
they  discovered  that,  instead  of  an  act  of  legitimate  re- 
spect to  the  emperor,  as  they  supposed,  they  had  been 
betrayed  into  paying  homage  to  idols.  Some  bitterly 
lamented  the  involuntary  sacrilege,  and  indignantly 
threw  down  their  arms.  Some  of  them  surrounded  the 
palace,  and  avowing  that  they  were  Christians,  loudly 
reproached  the  emperor  with  his  treachery,  and  cast 
down  the  largess  they  had  received.  For  this  breach 
of  discipline  they  were  led  out  to  military  execution. 
They  vied  with  each  other  for  the  honors  of  martyrdom. 
But  the  bloody  scene  was  interrupted  by  a  messenger 
from  the  emperor,  who  contented  himself  with  expelling 
them  from  the  army  and  sending  them  into  banishment. 
He  refused  to  call  the  Christians  by  the  name  of  their 
Redeemer,  but  enjoined  the  use  of  the'  less  honorable 
appellation  of  Galileans.*  He  prohibited  the  Christians 
from  teaching  grammar  or  rhetoric.  He  directly  for- 
bade them  to  teach,  and  indirectly  to  learn,  as  they  would 
not  frequent  the  schools  of  the  Pagans. 

On  Julian's  accession  to  the  throne,  he  had  made  a 
decree  that  the  exiles  banished  during  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantius  should  return.  The  great  Athanasius  availed 
himself  of  this  permission,  and  returned  to  Alexandria. 
He   once   more  resumed  his  place  as  the  patriarch  of 

*  Or  Nazarenes. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  12/ 

Alexandria.  His  pastoral  labors  were  not  confined  to 
the  narrow  limits  of  Egypt.*  The  state  of  the  Christian 
world  was  present  to  his  active  and  capacious  mind ; 
and  his  age,  merit,  and  reputation  enabled  him  to  as- 
sume, in  a  moment  of  danger,  the  office  of  ecclesiastical 
dictator.  By  the  wisdom  of  a  select  synod,  to  which 
the  name  and  presence  of  Athanasius  gave  the  authority 
of  a  general  council,  the  bishops  who  had  unwarily  de- 
viated into  error  were  admitted  to  the  communion  on 
the  condition  of  subscribing  to  the  Nicene  creed,  with- 
out any  formal  deprivation  of  their  scholastic 
opinions. 

While  Athanasius  was  thus  happily  harmonizing  the 
distracted  elements  of  the  Church,  which  had  but  lately 
threatened  a  division  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches, 
the  wrath  of  Julian  burst  forth  with  renewed  violence 
against  Athanasius.  The  skill  and  diligence  of  the  pri- 
mate of  Egypt  had  greatly  tranquillized  the  churches, 
before  the  edicts  of  Julian  were  issued.  Julian  was  soon 
convinced  by  the  earnest  solicitation  of  the  people,  to 
stay  the  hand  of  persecution,  that  the  majority  of  the 
Alexandrians  were  Christians,  and  that  they  were  firmly 
attached  to  the  cause  of  their  oppressed  primate.  But 
this  knowledge  excited  him  still  more,  and  provoked 
him  to  extend  to  all  Egypt,  the  term  of  the  exile  of 
Athanasius.  In  writing  to  the  pra;fect  of  Egypt,  Julian 
swore  by  the  great  Serapis,  that  unless  by  the  calends 
of  December  Athanasius  had  departed  from  Alexandria, 
nay,  from  Egypt,  that  the  government  should  pay  a 
hundred  pounds  of  gold !  He  calls  Athanasius  an 
abominable  wretch,  who  had  been  the  cause  of  several 
Grecian  ladies,  of  the  highest  rank,  receiving  Christian 

*  Gibbon. 


128  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

baptism.  *  The  death  of  Athanasius  was  not  com- 
manded, but  the  praefect  of  Egypt  understood  that  it  was 
safer  for  him  to  exceed  than  to  neglect  the  peremptory 
orders  of  an  irritated  master.  The  bishop  prudently  re- 
tired to  the  monastaries  of  the  desert,  eluded  with  his 
usual  dexterity  the  snares  of  an  enemy,  and  lived  to 
triumph  over  the  ashes  of  a  prince  who  had  declared 
his  wish  that  the  whole  venom  of  the  Galilean  school 
were  contained  in  the  single  person  of  Athanasius. 

"Julian  by  an  artful  system,"  says  Gibbon,  "  pro- 
posed to  obtain  the  effects  of  the  Christians,  without 
incurring  the  reproach  of  persecution."  He  abrogated 
all  the  exclusive  privileges  of  the  clergy  ;  their  immun- 
ity from  taxation,  and  exemptions  from  public  duties. 
He  would  not  allow  Christians  to  be  pra^fects,  as  their 
law  prohibited  capital  punishments.  ' '  But  if  the  deadly 
spirit  of  fanaticism  perverted  the  heart  of  a  virtuous 
prince,"  says  Gibbon,  "it  must  be  confesssed  that  the 
real  sufferings  of  the  Christians  were  greatly  magnified 
by  human  passions  and  religious  enthusiasm.  The 
meekness  and  resignation  of  the  primitive  disciples  of 
the  Gospel,  was  the  object  of  the  applause  rather  than 
the  imitation  of  their  successors."  The  historian  makes 
an  apology  for  Julian,  but  not  for  the  Christians. 

The  wealth  and  power  that  entered  the  Church  in 
the  time  of  Constantine  and  his  successors,  had  a  tend- 
ency to  corrupt  the  simplicity  of  the  Gospel,  and  to 
introduce  doctrines,  habits  and  customs  that  were 
foreign  to  the  spirit  of  the  Master,  and  the  teachings  of 
Him  and  of  His  apostles.  Still,  the  Church,  in  the 
darkest  and  most  troublous  times,  was  as  "  a  burning 
and  shining  light  "  amid  a  dark,  tempestuous  world. 

*  Gibbon. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1 29 

The  Church  was  an  ark  of  safety  and  comfort  to 
those  who  entered  it  with  honest,  true  and  loving 
hearts.  But  in  the  Jewish,  as  well  as  in  the  Christian 
dispensation,  the  evil  has  been  mingled  with  the  good. 
As  early  as  the  fourth  century,  "corruption,  fraud  and 
bloodshed  had  begun  to  crowd  the  path  that  led  to  the 
Shepherd's  seat."  The  seed  was  sown  by  the  Divine 
Husbandman,  and  doctrines  far  surpassing  in  purity  and 
efficacy  any  system  of  theology  which  the  human  mind 
had  previously  conceived,  were  Avidely  promulgated. 
During  the  continuance  of  the  Apostolic  age,  Chris- 
tianity had  extended  throughout  the  Roman  world  and 
beyond  its  limits,  so  that  no  local  power  could  crush  it. 
Before  the  death  of  the  last  inspired  teacher,  Christianity 
had  struck  its  roots  deep  into  the  soil  of  every  country 
between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  true  Church  is  an  aggregate  of  individuals, 
whose  hearts  have  been  quickened  from  above,  and 
whose  dispositions  are  controlled  by  the  genuine  prin- 
ciples of  the  New  Testament.  Clouds  have  darkened 
the  sky  in  different  periods  of  the  history  of  the  Church 
—  the  germs  of  many  good  seed  have  died,  choked  by 
earthly  desires  —  a  cutting  wind  of  controversy  about 
trifles,  and  about  unimportant  rites  and  ceremonies  may 
have  destroyed  good  fruit  —  yet  the  Church  has  much 
more  than  sjinnvcd.  It  has  had  to  contend  with  many 
ills  —  the  persecutions  of  Pagan  Rome  —  the  inroads  of 
barbarous  hordes,  darkening  the  light  of  civilization  by 
the'  dreadful  additions  brought  to  Papal  Rome  from 
Paganism  —  but  the  Word  of  God  has  remained  un- 
touched. Christianity  uprooted  in  some  places,  as  in 
Mahometan  countries,  has  sprung  up  in  other  countries. 
The  Lord's  promise,  that  he  would  always  be  with-  his 


130  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

people,  seems  not  to  have  secured  them  from  some 
mistakes  in  doctrine,  yet  when  we  review  Church  his- 
tory, there  is  much  consolation  in  the  thought,  that  in 
the  darkest  times  there  has  ever  been  a  mystical  body 
—  a  true  Church.  It  mitigated  evils  which  could  not 
be  entirely  averted  —it  transmitted  to  a  better  age,  the 
elements  of  natural  and  religious  truth. 

The  Apostate  Julian,  soon  after  the  failure  of  his 
designs  at  Jerusalem,  set  out  on  an  expedition  to  Persia. 
He  wished  to  secure  by  this  campaign  the  Euphratic 
provinces  from  a  dangerous  rival  of  the  Roman  power. 
But  death  "  had  marked  him  for  her  own."  His  short 
reign  of  two  years  was  brought  to  an  abrupt  termina- 
tion by  the  arrows  of  the  Persians. 

Not  only  as  an  emperor,  but  as  a  writer,  was  Julian 
indefatigable  in  his  efforts  to  overthrow  Christianity. 
He  wrote  during  the  long  winter  nights  of  his  Persian 
campaign  an  elaborate  work  against  the  faith  of  Christ. 
It  has  been  said  that  when  he  received  the  fatal  death- 
wound,  he  uttered  the  bitter  sentence,  "Thou  hast 
conquered,  O  Galilean."  But  his  heathen  friends  give 
a  very  different  account  of  his  last  hours.  He  com- 
forted his  weeping  friends,  they  say  —  expressed  his 
willingness  to  pay  the  debt  of  nature,  and  his  joy  that 
the  purer  part  of  his  nature  was  soon  to  be  released 
from  the  gross  and  material  body. 

Had  Julian  lived  longer,  he  might  have  dictated 
terms  of  peace  and  have  limited  the  aggressive  designs 
of  Sapor,  the  Persian  Monarch — he  might  have  delayed 
the  fall  of  the  empire,  but  the  fall  of  Paganism  could 
not  have  been  arrested.  "The  peaceful  stream  of 
progressive  opinion  and  religious  sentiment,  will  not 
retrograde  or  retire  at  man's  bidding.     The  oppressor 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.        I3I 

holds  the  body  bound,  but  he  knows  not  what  a  range 
the  spirit  takes." 

The  short  reign  of  Jovian,  of  a  few   months,  was 
sufficient  to  restore  the  ascendency  of  Christianity.    " 


132       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Valentinian,  son  of  Count  Gratian,  a  distinguished 
Roman,  now  succeeded  to  the  empire.  He  ascended 
the  throne  with  the  fame  of  having  rejected  the  favor  of 
JuHan  and  the  prospect  of  mihtary  distinction  for  the 
sake  of  his  reHgion.  He  had  once  provoked  the  danger 
of  disgrace  by  the  contempt  which  he  expressed  for 
heathenism.  At  Antioch,  where  he  was  obhged  by  his 
position  to  attend  the  emperor  to  the  table,  it  is  said 
he  struck  a  Pagan  priest  who  had  presumed  to  purify 
him  with  lustral  water.  Valentinian  reigned  in  the 
West.  He  soon  appointed  his  brother  Valens,  after 
his  elevation,  as  his  associate  in  the  empire.  Valens' 
seat  of  power  was  at  Constantinople.  These  brothers 
allowed  perfect  freedom  to  the  public  ritual  of  Pagan- 
ism, but  both  in  the  East  and  West  a  tremendous  per- 
secuting power  was  waged  against  magic  and  unlawful 
divination.  Valens  was  a  fierce  Arian  and  maintained 
in  the  East  the  ascendancy  of  Arianism.  During  the 
life  of  Athanasius  the  see  of  Alexandria  remained  faith- 
ful to  the  Trinitarian  doctrines. 

A.  D.  364.  It  was  in  the  year  364  that  Valentinian 
and  Valens  ascended  the  two  thrones  of  the  empire. 
The  former  held  the  reins  of  government  firmly,  but 
the  latter  was  weak  and  pusillanimous.  Gibbon  tells 
us  that  Valentinian  condemned  the  exposition  of  in- 
fants, and  established  in  the  fourteen  quarters  of  Rome 
fourteen  skillful  physicians,  with  stipends  and  privi- 
leges.     He  founded  useful  and   liberal  institutions  for 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1 33 

the  education  of  youth  and  the  support  of  decHning 
science.  It  was  during  the  reign  of  Valentinian  that 
there  was  a  fierce  conflict  at  Rome  between  the  follow- 
ers of  Damasus  and  Ursinus  for  the  seat  of  the  bishop. 
Damasus  prevailed  ;  the  schism  was  extinguished  by  the 
exile  of  Ursinus.  Ammianus,  a  reliable  heathen  his- 
torian, says  of  this  disgraceful  contest:  "I  am  not  as- 
tonished that  so  valuable  a  prize  should  inflame  the 
desires  of  ambitious  men  ;  but  how  much  more  rationally 
would  these  Roman  pontiffs  consult  their  true  happi- 
ness by  imitating  the  exemplary  lives  of  the  provincial 
bishops,  who  recommend  their  religion  by  their  temper- 
ance and  sobriety,  by  their  plain  apparel  and  humble 
demeanor." 

Valens  is  charged  with  some  dreadful  crimes  against 
the  Trinitarian  or  Catholic  party.  But  we  prefer  to 
relate  a  memorable  interview  which  occurred  between 
him  and  the  archbishop  of  Caesarea,  in  Cappadocia. 
The  unscrupulous  wicked  minister  of  Valens  had  been 
sent  in  advance  to  persuade  the  bishop  to  accept  the 
Arian  opinions  of  the  emperor.  Basil  was  inflexible, 
though  the  minister,  Modestus,  threatened  him  with 
confiscation  and  banishment.  Basil  said  to  Modestus, 
"  He  who  possesses  nothing  can  lose  nothing;  all  you 
can  take  from  me  are  my  clothes  and  my  books,  which 
are  my  only  wealth.  As  to  exile,  the  earth  is  the 
Lord's;  everywhere  it  will  be  my  country,  or  rather 
my  place  of  pilgrimage."  Modestus  was  astonished  at 
the  intrepidity  of  Basil.  He  returned  to  his  master, 
telling  him  that  neither  violence  nor  menaces  could 
move  this  man,  Valens  shrunk  from  violence.  He 
approached  the  bishop  in  a  crowd  of  distinguished  wor- 
shipers,  bearing  an  oblation.      His  clergy_ stood  irres- 


134  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

olute,  doubting  whether  they  ought  to  receive  his 
offering.  Basil  advanced  and  accepted  the  oblation, 
but  neither  supplications  nor  threats  could  induce  the 
bishop  to  receive  the  sovereign  of  the  Eastern  Empire 
to  the  communion.  In  a  personal  interview,  the  em- 
peror was  so  overcome  with  the  eloquence  of  Basil,  as 
to  insist  upon  the  bestowment  of  a  gift  for  the  poor. 

Valens  listens  to  the  supplications  of  an  immense 
multitude  of  Goths,  who,  alarmed  by  the  inroads  of  the 
Huns  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Danube,  implore  an 
entrance  into  the  Eastern  Empire.  They  are  per- 
mitted to  cross  the  Danube,  and  to  take  possession  of 
the  lands  of  Thrace.  Afterwards  incetjsed  by  the  in- 
justice and  cruelty  of  the  ministers  of  Valens,  and 
knowing  their  own  power,  Fritigern,  one  of  the  Gothic 
<chiefs,  determines  to  lift  the  standard  of  rebellion. 
Opposing  armies  of  Goths  and  Romans  assemble  them- 
selves in  the  city  of  Adrianople.  The  emperor  Valens 
takes  the  command  of  his  army  and  is  slain  by  bar- 
barian arrows.  A  great  number  of  brave  officers  per- 
ished in  this  battle,  which  equalled,  says  Gibbon,  in 
actual  loss  and  far  surpassed  in  fatal  consequences  the 
battle  of  Cannae.  Hordes  of  barbarians  had  now  made 
a  permanent  establishment  within  the  frontiers  of  the 
Roman  Empire. 

A.  D.  376.  Within  the  next  century  Visigoths, 
Ostrogoths,  Huns,  Vandals,  HeruH,  Franks,  Saxons, 
Lombards,  migrated  from  the  East  and  North,  settling 
themselves  by  colonization  or  conquest,  introducing 
one  or  more  new  races  into  every  country  and  province 
in  Europe,  also  settling  "like  a  pitchy  cloud  of  locusts," 
in  the  fair  and  cultivated  fields  of  northern  Africa.  We 
have  already  said  that  Christianity  mitigated  evils  it 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       135 

could  not  avert.  In  the  resettling  of  Europe  and  other 
provinces  of  the  empire,  Christianity,  says  Milman, 
was  the  one  common  bond,  the  harmonizing  principle 
which  subdued  to  something  like  unity  the  adverse  and 
conflicting  elements  of  society.  But  while  it  discharged 
this  lofty  mission,  it  could  not  but  undergo  itself  a  great 
change.  It  might  repress  but  could  not  wholly  subdue 
the  advance  of  barbarism.  While  struggling  to  count- 
eract barbarism,  Christianity  itself  became  barbarized. 
It  lost  for  a  time  much  of  its  gentleness  and  purity,  it 
became  splendid  and  imaginative,  and  at  length  warlike 
and  chivalrous.  Christianity  had  in  some  degree  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  amalgamation  of  the  Goths  with 
the  Roman  Empire.  During  the  reign  of  Gallienus, 
A.  D.  260,  in  the  first  inroads  of  the  Goths,  when  they 
ravaged  quite  a  large  part  of  the  Roman  Empire,  they 
carried  away  numbers  of  slaves  from  Asia  Minor  and 
Cappadocia.  There  were  many  Christians  among 
these.  The  gentle  doctrines  of  Christianity  won  their 
way  to  the  hearts  of  the  barbarous  warriors.  A  Gothic 
bishop  with  a  Greek  name  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Nice.  The  famous  Ulphilas,  bishop  of  the 
Goths  in  the  reign  of  Valens,  was  of  Cappadocian  de- 
scent. Thus  we  see  the  dispersion  of  the  Christians  in 
the  early  times,  whether  as  slaves^  or  soldiers,  con- 
tributed to  the  spread  of  the  doctrines  of  Christ.  The 
Christian  clergy  occupied  during  the  resettling  of 
Europe  a  strange  position  in  the  new  state  of  society. 
The  Christian  bishop  confronted  the  barbarian  sovereign, 
and  though  the  lands  of  the  clergy  themselves  were  rav- 
aged in  the  indiscriminate  warfare,  and  were  sometimes  in- 

*  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Greek  and  Roman  slaves  were 
frequently  intelligent  and  cultivated. 


136  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

suited  or  enslaved,  yet  before  long  the  minds  of  the 
conquerors  were  subdued  by  them.  The  authority 
claimed  and  exercised  by  the  clergy  at  this  period  in 
the  progress  of  civilization  was  of  the  highest  utility. 
In  these  warlike  times  the  clergy  were  almost  the  ex- 
clusive possessors  of  learning,  which  commands  the 
reverence  of  barbarians  when  not  actually  engaged  in 
war.  The  Christian  religion  rested  on  a  written  record ; 
the  best  minds  of  the  literary  ages  had  been  devoted  to 
its  elucidation.  It  became  necessary,  in  the  times  of 
invading,  devastating  armies,  that  retreats  should  be 
sought  for  the  literary,  who  were  anxious  to  preserve 
the  fruits  of  knowledge  produced  in  more  peaceful 
and  happier  times.  The  cloister  or  the  religious  foun- 
dation thus  became  the  place  of  refuge  to  all  that 
remained  of  letters  or  arts.  Ulphilas,  the  most  cele- 
brated bishop  among  the  Goths,  made  a  version  of  the 
Scriptures  in  the  Maesic  Gothic  language.  The  lan- 
guage of  Ulphilas,  says  Milman,  is  the  link  between 
the  East  and  Europe,  between  the  Sanscrit  and  the 
modern  Teutonic  languages.  A  large  part  of  this  ver- 
sion is  now  extant  in  the  Upsal.  It  is  written  in  silver 
letters,  on  purple  parchment. 

The  whole  Gothic  nation  received  the  Arian  form 
of  Christianity.  When  Ulphilas  and  other  Gothic  pre- 
lates visited  Constantinople,  they  found  the  Arian 
bishops  in  chief  authority ;  they  were  persuaded,  it  is 
said,  by  these  men  that  the  difference  between  Arianism 
and  Trinitarianism  consisted  in  disputes  about  words. 
Arianism  continued  to  be  the  general  form  of  their 
religious  belief  until  the  fall  of  the  Gothic  monarchies 
in  Italy  and  Spain. 

"The  title,  the  ensigns,  the  prerogatives  of  the  sove. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       1 37 

reign  pontiff,*  which  had  been  instituted  by  Numa 
and  assumed  by  Augustus,  were  accepted  without 
hesitation  by  several  Christian  .emperors,  who  were 
invested  with  a  more  absolute  authority  over  the  reHgion 
which  they  deserted,  than  over  that  which  they  pro- 
fessed." We  presume  those  emperors  regarded  the 
office  as  poHtical  rather  than  rehgious.  Gratian,  son 
of  Valentinian  I.,  was  the  first  emperor  who  refused  the 
pontifical  robe,  a.  d.  367.  Notwithstanding  the  steady 
decadence  of  Paganism,  it  was  still  recognized  in  many 
parts  of  the  empire  by  sacrifices.  Many  of  the  Pagan 
temples,  especially  in  Rome,  were  undisturbed,  though 
some  of  them  were  deserted.  The  Prefect  of  Rome  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century  was  a  Pagan. 
Symmachus,  a.  man  of  virtue  and  learning,  was  the 
Pagan  Prefect  of  Rome  when  Valentinian  II.  succeeded 
to  the  sole  empire  of  the  West.  Symmachus  mourned 
over  the  aggressive  acts  of  Gratian.  This  emperor  had 
abrogated  the  immunities  of  the  Pagan  priesthood ;  he 
had  removed  the  statue  of  victory  from  the  Senate 
House  which  had  been  restored  by  Julian.  The  senate 
met  under  the  authority  of  Symmachus,  to  prepare  and 
present  a  petition  to  be  offered  to  the  emperor.  Sym- 
machus in  this  oration  exercised  all  his  eloquence ;  he 
recounts  the  mighty  deeds  of  Jlome  in  the  days  of  her 
Republican  glory,  ascribing  to  the  Pagan  rites  the 
potent  spell  that  repelled  her  enemies.  But  a  counter 
petition  was  prepared  by  Ambrose,  the  famous  bishop 
of  Milan.  He  asserts  the  unquestionable  obligation  of 
a  Christian  sovereign  to  permit  no  part  of  the  public 
revenue  to  be  devoted  to  idolatry.  "Man  can  not 
serve  two  masters."     Theodosius  was  at  this  time  em- 

*  Gibbon. 


138  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST, 

peror  of  Constantinople.  He  was  justly  styled  the  Great 
Theodosius ;  he  was  at  first  associated  with  Gratian ;  on 
the  death  of  that  monarch  he  was  the  protector  of  Val- 
entinian  II.,  and  his  restorer  to  the  throne,  after  the  in- 
vasion and  defeat  of  Maximus.  The  accession  of 
Theodosius  was  hailed  with  enthusiasm  throughout  the 
empire.  Theodosius  was  a  Spaniard.  In  that  prov- 
ince Christianity  had  been  established  at  an  early  day. 
Spain  through  the  commanding  influence  of  Hosius, 
had  firmly  adhered  to  the  Trinitarian  or  Athanasian 
doctrines.  Theodosius  was  by  character  and  education 
deeply  impressed  with  the  truths  of  Christianity  and 
the  Trinitarian  doctrines.  After  the  defeat  and  death 
of  the  tyrant  of  Gaul,  Maximus,  the  Roman  world  was  in 
the  possession  of  Theodosius.  He  seated  Valentinian 
on  the  throne  of  Milan,  and  fully  restored  him  to  the 
dominion  of  all  the  provinces,  from  which  he  had  been 
driven  by  the  arms  of  Maximus.  Before  the  invasion 
of  Maximus,  Justina,  a  woman  of  beauty  and  spirit, 
the  mother  of  Valentinian  II.,  feeling  secure  in  the 
government  of  Italy,  insisted  that  she  had  a  right  to 
claim  in  the  dominions  of  her  son  the  public  exercise 
of  her  religion.  She  had  been  educated  in  Arianism, 
and  was  zealous  in  instilling  her  principles  into  the 
mind  of  her  son.  She  therefore  proposed  to  Ambrose, 
the  bishop  of  Milan,  that  he  should  resign  to  her  con- 
trol a  single  church  in  Milan  or  in  its  suburbs.  Am- 
brose would  not  accede  to  her  request;  he  thought  it 
would  be  sacrilege  to  yield  a  church  where  Arian  prin- 
ciples would  be  maintained  and  taught.  The  palaces 
of  the  earth,  he  said,  indeed  belonged  to  Csesar ;  but 
the  churches  are  the  houses  of  God ;  and  he,  within 
the  limits  of  his  diocese,  as  the  lawful  successor  of  the 


i 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       1 39 

apostles,  was  the  only  minister  of  God.  He  declared 
with  firmness  that  he  would  die  a  martyr  rather  than 
yield  to  the  impious  sacrilege.  Justina  prepared  to 
resist,  and  exert  the  imperial  prerogative  of  her  son, 
but  finally  after  much  trouble  and  tumult,  she  was 
compelled  to  yield,  seeing  that  the  majority  coincided 
with  the  archbishop,  and  the  laws  of  the  country  con- 
demned the  Arian  heresy.  The  powers  of  the  earth 
seemed  to  interfere  in  the  defense  of  Ambrose,  for  now 
the  tyrant  of  Gaul  with  an  army  of  barbarians  seized 
the  fortresses  of  the  Alps,  and  rapidly  approached  the 
gates  of  Milan.  Justina  and  the  young  emperor  fled  to 
the  court  of  Theodosius.  Justina  died  shortly  after  the 
restoration  of  her  son  to  the  throne  by  the  prowess  of 
Theodosius.  After  the  death  of  his  mother,  Valentin- 
ian,  either  from  conviction  or  policy,  professed  Trinita- 
rianism. 

Ambrose,  of  Milan,  at  this  time  the  presiding  mind 
of  the  orthodox  clergy,  united  in  himself  all  the  epis- 
copal virtues  in  an  eminent  degree.  The  natural  dis- 
position of  Theodosius,  the  great  captain  and  em- 
peror,* of  whom  we  have  already  said  so  much,  was 
hasty  and  choleric.  "  Within  three  years,"  says  Gibbon, 
"we  must  relate  the  gentroxis pardon  of  the  people  of 
Antioch,  and  the  inhuman  massacre  of  the  people  of 


*  Constantinople,  until  Theodosius  reigned  there,  had  been  the 
stronghold  of  Arianism.  It  is  said  this  emperor  required  Demopolus, 
the  archbishop,  either  to  sign  the  Nicene  Creed  or  to  resign  his  epis- 
copal authority  over  the  great  city.  He .  chose  to  resign,  and  the 
famous  Gregory  Nazianzen  was  installed  in  his  stead.  Gregory  when 
he  unwillingly  accepted  the  bishopric,  was  old  and  unambitious,  his 
manners  pure  and  simple. 


140  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Thessalonica.  As  the  recital  of  the  chief  incidents  con- 
nected with  these  two  cities  illustrates  the  great  power 
and  influence  of  the  bishops  of  this  period,  we  will 
attempt  to  relate  them  in  our  next  chapter. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       I4I 


CHAPTER  XV. 

Chrysostom,  afterwards  so  celebrated  as  the  Bishop 
of  Constantinople,  presided  previously  over  the  churches 
of  Antioch.  In  consequence  of  a  new  taxation  laid 
upon  the  people  of  Antioch,  whi  h  they  considered 
exorbitant,  a  tumultuous  insurrection  ensued  ;  the 
people  determined  to  resist  the  demands  of  the  imperial 
officers.  The  mob  were  roused  to  fury,  and  cast  down 
the  statues  of  the  emperor  and  empress  ;  also  the  statues 
of  their  two  sons,  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  This  meet- 
ing was  soon  quelled  by  the  better  classes  of  the  citizens, 
but  the  populace  were  seized  with  alarm  at  what  they 
had  done,  and  awaited  with  fear  and  trembling  the 
sentence  of  the  emperor.  The  governor  of  the  province 
had  dispatched  to  the  emperor  a  narration  of  the  whole 
transaction,  and  strict  inquisition  had  been  made  as  to 
the  guilt  of  individuals.  Abject  terror  seemed  to  take 
possession  of  a  large  number  of  the  community.  This 
commotion  at  Antioch  was  previous  to  the  massacre  at 
Thessalonica.  Their  only  hope  of  pardon  rested  upon 
their  aged  Bishop  Flarianus,  whom  they  induced  to 
undertake  a  journey  of  eight  hundred  miles,  to  inter- 
cede for  them  with  the  emperor. 

Chrysostom,  a  presbyter,  meanwhile  remained  with 
the  people,  to  quiet  their  fears  and  administer  consola- 
tion. Twenty-four  days  after  the  sedition,  the  masters 
of  the  offices  declared  to  the  people  the  terrible  sentence 
of  the  emperor. 


142  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

The  sentence  was  that  Antioch  should  be  degraded 
from  the  rank  of  a  city  ;  the  proud  metropohs  of  the 
East  should  be  subjected  to  the  jurisdiction  of  Laodicea. 
The  two  officers  of  justice,  however,  determined  to 
suspend  the  execution  of  the  terrible  edicts  against  the 
city  until  the  return  of  the  orator  Caesarius  and  the 
Bishop  Flarianus. 

The  resentment  of  Theodosius  subsided.  He  granted 
a  free  and  general  pardon.  The  capital  of  the  East 
was  not  shorn  of  its  ancient  dignity  and  splendor.  The 
bishop  left  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  with  warm 
expressions  of  his  respect  and  gratitude  for  the  interces- 
sion he  had  made.  The  emperor  also  thanked  the 
senate  of  Constantinople  for  the  interest  they  had  mani- 
fested for  their  distressed  brethren.* 

Chrysostom,  during  this  interval  of  terrible  sus- 
pense, had  ascended  the  pulpit  day  after  day,  and  the 
people  in  their  distress,  listening  to  his  eloquence,  forgot 
the  forum,  the  theater,  and  the  circus.  The  monks, 
too,  from  their  mountain  hermitages,  came  down  to  try 
to  impart  fortitude  and  consolation  to  the  despairing 
people. 

There  was  no  repeal  nor  pardon,  however,  connected 
with  the  more  famous  sedition  at  Thessalonica.  A  favor- 
ite lieutenant,  together  with  a  general  and  his  officers, 
had  been  inhumanly  murdered.  The  emperor  hastily 
resolved  that  the  blood  of  his  favorite  and  that  of  his 
brave  officers  should  be  expiated  in  the  blood  of  the 
citizens  of  Thessalonica.  The  zeal  of  the  clergy  had 
almost  extorted  a  pardon  from  the  emperor,  when  the 
suggestions  of  his  minister  Rufinus  again  inflamed  his 

*  Gibbon. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       I43 

anger.      After   he    had   dispatched    the    messengers   of 
vengeance,  he  tried  too  late  to  recall  them. 

When  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  heard  of  the 
massacre,  his  soul  was  filled  with  horror  and  anguish. 
When  the  intelligence  of  the  massacre  first  reached 
Ambrose,  he  kept  aloof  from  the  exasperated  emperor. 
He  retired  to  the  country,  and  zvrote  to  the  sovereign. 
His  letter  expressed  his  own  distress  and  the  affliction 
of  his  brother  bishops,  at  a  deed  so  inhuman  as  the 
massacre  at  Thessalonica.  He  and  his  brethren  must 
not  only  express  their  detestation  of  his  guilt,  but  must 
also  refuse  to  communicate  with  a  man  so  stained  with 
blood,  not  of  one,  but  of  thousands.  He  exhorts  him  to 
penitence  ;  he  promises  the  emperor  his  prayers  in  his 
behalf,  but  tells  him  the  doors  of  the  church  must  be 
closed  against  him. 

The  emperor  of  the  world  was  excluded  for  eight 
months  from  the  communion  of  the  Church.  On  _ 
Christmas  day,  when  the  holy  precincts  were  open  to 
the  slave  and  beggar,  the  emperor  was  denied  admission. 
At  length  Ambrose  consented  to  an  interview  with  the 
emperor,  in  the  outer  porch  of  the  church,  the  place  of 
public  penitents.  The  interdict  was  removed  on  two 
conditions  :  that  the  monarch  should  issue  an  edict 
forbidding  the  execution  of  capital  punishments  for 
thirty  days  after  conviction,  or  that  the  emperor  should 
submit  to  public  penance.  Stripped  of  his  imperial 
ornaments,  prostrated  on  the  pavement,  watering  the 
ground  with  his  tears,  the  master  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
the  c,  nqueror  in  so  many  victories,  the  legislator  of  the 
world,  humbled  himself  before  the  minister  of  God 
and  received  his  absolution. 

In  this  instance,  and  in  many  other  events  of  this 


144       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

age,  Christianity  appears  as  the  glorious  champion  of 
outraged  humanity.  But  in  this  unHmited  sovereignty 
over  the  mind,  so  potent  to  repress  evil,  when  exercised 
by  the  honest  and  true  in  the  punishment  of  evil  acts, 
there  lurked  a  latent  evil.  This  power,  in  evil  coun- 
selors and  in  a  darker  age,  might  take  cognizance  of 
opinions,  as  well  as  deeds  or  overt  acts,  and  would  con- 
demn the  offender  to  punishment  and  death. 

In  A.  D.  385,  the  first  blood  wus  judicially  shed  for 
religious  opinions.  This  was  the  act  of  a  usurping 
sovereign,  Maximus,  and  the  Spanish  bishops  Idacius 
and  Ithacius.  Priscillian,  an  eloquent  Spaniard,  had 
embraced  some  Manichean  or  Gnostic  opinions.  He 
and  his  followers  had  propagated  his  opinions  in  the 
southern  part  of  Gaul,  where  they  had  taken  refuge 
from  persecution.  This  act  of  persecution  was  solemnly 
disclaimed  by  all  the  influential  dignitaries  of  the  West- 
ern Church,  by  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Chrysostom, 
the  Golden-mouthed. 

When  Ambrose  reproached  the  usurper  Maximus 
with  the  murder  of  his  sovereign,  also  with  the  unjust 
execution  of  the  Priscillianists,  he  refused  to  communi- 
cate with  the  bishops'who  had  any  connection  in  that  un- 
christian and  sanguinary  transaction.  This  {zX-aX  precedent 
was  disowned  by  the  general  voice  of  Christianity.  It 
required,  says  Milman,  a  long  period  of  ignorance  and 
bigotry  so  to  deaden  the  moral  sense  of  Christianity  as 
to  abandon  the  spirit  of  love.  IVlartin  of  Tours  urged 
his  protest  in  vain  against  the  bloody  sentence  passed 
upon  the  Priscillianists  or  Gnostics.  Martin's  life  had 
been  an  unwearied  campaign  against  idolatry.  He 
had  demoli-shed  every  Pagan  edifice  within  his  reach  ; 
but  persecutiun  for  opinion's  sake  he  abhorred.     St. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  145 

Martin  has  been  a  favorite  subject  for  legend.  He  once 
met  a  poor  creature  at  Amiens  suffering  with  cold. 
Martin  had  nothing  but  a  cloak.  He  cut  the  cloak  into 
two  pieces,  giving  one  piece  to  the  poor  man.  The 
following  night,  Jesus  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream, 
dressed  in  a  half  cloak.  Ambrose  of  Milan  died  in  a.  d. 
397.  To  this  devout  prelate  is  ascribed  the  grand 
hymn,  "TV  Deum  Latidaimis."  Tradition  says  it  was 
first  chanted  in  the  cathedral  of  Milan  when  Augustine, 
bishop  of  Hippo,  was  baptized. 

Of  all  Christian  writers  since  the  apostles,  Augustine 
has  maintained  the  most  permanent  influence,  though 
some  of  his  opinions  were  harsh,  in  view  of  the  certain 
truth  that  "  God  is  love."  He  had  comparatively  little 
influence  in  the  Greek  Church,  but  the  dominion  of 
Augustine  over  the  opinions  of  the  Western  world  was 
eventually  over  the  greater  part  of  Christendom. 

The  Greek  Empire,  after  the  reign  of  Justinian, 
greatly  contracted  its  limits.  The  Greek  Church  seemed 
for  a  time  to  forget  her  great  writers  on  the  momentous 
subjects  of  religion  and  morality,  for  the  Church  wasted 
her  energies  on  frivolous  and  insignificant  questions  of 
faith.  We  have  said  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  abstract 
of  Church  history,  that  Christianity  was  a  Greek  religion 
for  more  than  three  centuries ;  but  from  the  time  of 
Augustine  (a.  d.  384),  the  Latin  language  heca.me  a/most 
that  of  Christianity.  The  language  of  Basil  and  Chrys- 
ostom  now  became  foreign  or  dead  to  the  larger  part  of 
the  Christian  world.  Mahometanism  at  length  robbed 
Christianity  of  some  of  her  fairest  provinces,  and  nar- 
rowed the  Greek  Church  to  a  smaller  circle.  In  modern 
days,  we  see  its  enlargement  in  its  extension  in  the 
Russian  Empire. 


146.  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Of  all  the  Latin  writers,  Augustine  was  the  most 
commanding  and  influential.  Abstruse  topics,  which 
had  been  but  slightly  touched  in  the  apostolic  writings, 
became  the  prominent  points  of  the  Augustinian  the- 
ology. "  Augustinianism  has  constantly  revived,  in 
every  period  of  religious  excitement.  It  formed  much 
of  the  system  of  Luther  in  later  days ;  his  doctrines 
(the  doctrines  of  St.  Augustine)  were  worked  up  into  a 
rigid  and  uncompromising  system  by  the  severe  intel- 
lect of  Calvin  ;  it  was  remoulded  by  Jansenius  into  the 
Roman  Catholic  doctrine.  The  theology  of  most  of 
the  Protestant  sects  is  but  a  modified  Augustinianism." 

St.  Augustine  was  born  (a.  d.  354)  in  Tagasta,  a  city 
of  Numidia  (Algiers).  His  parents  were  Christians  of 
respectable  rank.  His  mother  Monica  became  quite 
famous,  in  consequence  of  her  religious  anxiety  with 
regard  to  her  son.  While  pursuing  his  studies  at  Car- 
thage, his  ardent  mind  plunged  into  the  intoxicating 
enjoyments  of  the  theater,  and  other  sinful  gratifications. 
He  was  first  arrested  in  his  sensual  course,  it  is  said,  by 
the  remonstrances  of  Pagan  literature ;  especially  from 
Cicero  did  he  learn  the  dignity  of  intellectual  attain- 
ments. But  philosophy  would  not  satisfy  the  cravings 
of  his  spirit.  He  turned  to  the  religion  of  his  parents, 
but  the  inimitable  simplicity  of  the  New  Testament 
could  not  at  first  .satisfy  him.  He  turned  aside  to  the 
books  of  the  Gnostics,  and  for  several  years  was  deeply 
imbued  with  the  wild  doctrines  of  Manicheism.  His 
mother,  the  holy  Monica,  watched  over  the  irregular 
development  of  his  powerful  mind.  His  mother's 
distress  at  his  Manichean  errors  was  consoled  by  an 
aged  bishop,  who  had  himself  been  involved  in  the 
same  opinions:    "Be  of  good  cheer;    the  child  of  so 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       14/ 

man/  tears  and  prayers  can  never  perish."  This  an- 
swer of  the  good  bishop  has  infused  a  ray  of  comfort 
into  the  heart  of  many  a  pious  mother,  all  down  the 
ages  from  the  days  of  the  great  theologian.  How 
strange,  that  he  who  for  nine  years  wandered  amid  the 
mazes  and  reveries  of  Oriental  theology,  should  have 
become  at  length  the  most  logical  of  theologians  ! 


148       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

Augustine  grew  discontented  with  the  Manichean 
doctrines,  which  could  not  satisfy  the  rehgious  yearn- 
ings of  his  heart.  He  determined  to  leave  Carthage 
for  Rome,  where  he  would  have  a  more  extended 
sphere  as  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  The  fame  of  his 
talents  reached  Milan.  He  was  born  within  the  magic 
circle  of  the  great  ecclesiastic  of  Milan.  The  eloquence 
of  Ambrose  induced  him  to  study  the  writings  of  the 
apostles,  which  until  nowhe  had  rejected.  He  thought 
he  saw  in  the  description  Paul  gives  of  the  dissolute 
morals  of  the  heathen  a  fearful  picture  of  his  own  life. 
In  his  religious  agony  he  seemed  to  hear  a  voice  say- 
ing, "Take  and  read,  take  and  read."  He  now  com- 
menced a  strictly  religious  life ;  his  mother,  who  fol- 
lowed him  to  Milan,  lived  to  witness  his  baptism  at  the 
hands  of  Ambrose.  He  wrote  controversial  treatises 
against  the  Manicheans,  Arians  and  Pelagians,  and 
seemed  to  have  the  power  to  bring  down  these  abtruse 
subjects  to  popular  comprehension.  His  great  work 
was  called  "The  City  of  God."  He  dedicated  thirteen 
years  of  his  life  to  this  great  work.  This  work  was 
chiefly  intended  to  expel  the  idea  that  the  decay  and 
fall  of  Rome  was  in  any  regard  due  to  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  or  the  alienation  of  its  Pagan  deities. 
The  Roman  Pagan  aristocracy  fled  to  different  parts  of 
the  world  in  the  hour  of  peril,  many  of  them  to  the  yet 
uninvaded,  peaceful  province  of  Africa ;  they  ascribed 
the    ruin   of  their  city  to  the   anger  of  their    Pagan 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  I49 

deities.  "The  City  of  God"  is  a  funeral  oration  of 
the  old  Pagan  society,  and  a  gratulatory  panegyric  on 
the  birth  of  the  new  Christian  society.  Augustine  in- 
stitutes a  comparison  between  the  Christian  Alaric 
(barbarian  as  he  was)  and  the  Pagan  Radagaisus  who 
left  the  cities  that  he  entered  a  pile  of  ruins,  whereas 
Alaric  held  Rome  six  days  and  did  but  little  mischief. 
He  spared  the  churches  and  the  lives  of  unresisting 
citizens.  Our  modern  historian  Gibbon  institutes  a 
comparison  between  Alaric,  the  Goth,  in  his  treatment 
of  Rome,  and  that  of  Charles  V.,  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, a  Roman  Catholic  prince,  who  held  Rome  nine 
months,  when  nearly  every  day  was  stained  by  some 
atrocity  of  the  soldiers. 

To  return  to  Augustine's  great  work.  Milman  says 
"The  City  of  God"  was  undoubtedly  the  noblest 
work,  both  in  design  and  execution,  that  had  yet  been 
contributed  to  the  cause  of  Christianity.  The  apologies 
hitherto  written  by  the  Fathers  were  framed  to  meet 
particular  emergencies,  and  were  brief  and  pregnant 
statements  of  Christian  doctrines.  The  work  of  Au- 
gustine was  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  whole  reli- 
gion and  philosophy  of  the  school  of  Christ  of  antiquity. 
It  has  preserved  more,  on  some  branches  of  this  sub- 
ject, than  the  whole  surviving  Latin  literature.  "The 
City  of  God"  was  not  merely  a  defense,  but  a  full  ex- 
position of  Christian  doctrine. 

The  threatened  invasion  of  Florence  by  Radagaisus, 
the  king  of  the  confederate  Germans,  is  beautifully 
related  by  Gibbon.  "Radagaisus  passed  without  re- 
sistance the  Alps,  the  Po  and  the  Apennines,  leaving 
on  one  hand  the  inaccessible  palace  of  Honorius,  se- 
curely buried  among  the  marshes  of  Ravenna,  and  on 


150  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  Other  hand  the  camp  of  StiHcho,  at  Paria,  who 
waited  to  assemble  his  distant  forces  before  he  made 
battle  with  Radagaisus. "  Meanwhile  Florence  was 
reduced  to  the  last  extremity ;  their  fainting  courage 
was  sustained  sifliply  by  the  authority  and  sympathy  of 
Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  who  had  in  a  dream  the 
promise  of  speedy  deliverance.  On  a  sudden  they  be- 
held from  their  walls  the  banners  of  Stilicho,*  who  ad- 
vanced with  his  united  force  to  the  relief  of  the  faithful 
city,  and  who  soon  marked  that  fatal  spot  for  the  grave 
of  the  barbarian  host.  Radagaisus  did  not  go  to  Rome. 
While  the  firmness  of  the  people  of  Florence  checked 
and  delayed  the  German  king  in  his  course,  Rome  one 
hundred  and  eighty  miles  distant,  trembled  lest  he 
should  approach.  Alaric  was  a  Christian  and  soldier 
who  respected  the  sanctities  of  treaties,  but  Radagaisus 
was  a  stranger  to  the  manners,  the  religion  and  even 
the  language  of  the  civilized  nations  of  the  South. 
Stilicho  defeated  Radagaisus,  and  deserved  a  second 
time  the  title  of  Deliverer  of  Italy.  Radagaisus  was 
beheaded,  which,  says  Mr.  Gibbon,  disgraced  the 
triumph  of  Rome  and  Christianity.  But  when  it  is 
remembered,  and  was  certainly  believed  by  the  actors 
in  that  terrible  drama,  that  he  had  made  a  vow  to  de- 
stroy Rome  and  sacrifice  her  senators  on  their  altars,  it 
is  not  surprising  that  he  was  punished  with  death.  He 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  immolating  his  prisoners  to  his 
gods — he  was  taken  in  arms.  At  this  time  Innocent  I. 
was  bishop  of  Rome.  When  Italy  was  invaded  by 
Alaric,  at  the  head  of  the  Visigoths,  Innocent  went  to 

*  Stilicho,  a  great  military  genius,  in  the  service  of  Theodosius. 
He  was  descended  from  the  Vandals.  He  was  honored  with  a  triumph 
at  Rome  for  his  great  services. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  I5I 

Ravenna  to  solicit  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Honorius. 
During  his  absence  the  city  was  taken  and  plundered, 
A.  D.  410.  After  the  departure  of  the  Goths  Inno- 
cent returned  to  Rome  and  exerted  himself  to  relieve 
the  wounds  of  the  scathed  metropolis.  His  zeal  and 
charity  endeared  him  to  all  classes  of  the  people.  This 
bishop  interceded  without  avail  in  behalf  of  the  famous 
Chrysostom,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who  had  been 
deposed  from  his  see  by  the  wicked  Eudocia,  empress 
of  Constantinople.  Chrysostom,  Ambrose  and  Augus- 
tine though  younger  lived  at  the  same  time.  Jerome 
also  lived  in  his  cell  at  Bethlehem  about  the  same  time, 
making  his  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible.  Innocent  I. 
though  more  distinguished  perhaps  than  any  of  his 
predecessors  in  the  see  of  Rome  (of  whom  anything  is 
certainly  known)  could  not  compare  in  mental  ability 
with  those  of  whom  we  have  just  spoken.  Augustine's 
personal  life  contrasts  with  those  of  Ambrose  and  Chry- 
sostom. He  had  not  like  Ambrose  to  interpose  be- 
tween rival  emperors,  or  like  Chrysostom  to  enter  into 
conflict  with  the  vices  of  a  court,  and  like  John  the 
Baptist  to  reprove  a  monarch  for  her  sin.  He  assumed 
the  episcopate  in  the  city  of  Hippo,  in  Africa,  and  was 
faithful  to  his  first  bride,  his  earliest  though  humble 
see.  Though  Africa  had  long  escaped  invasion,  it  was 
at  length  fearfully  visited  by  the  Vandals,  When  the 
Vandal  army  gathered  around  Hippo,  one  of  the  few 
cities  which  still  afforded  a  refuge  for  the  persecuted, 
he  refused,  though  more  than  seventy  years  old,  to 
abandon  his  post.  In  the  third  month  of  the  siege 
death  gave  him  deliverance,  and  he  thus  escaped  the 
horrors  of  the  capture,  the  cruelties  of  the  conqueror 
and  the  desolation  of  his  church,     a.  d.  340. 


152  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

MONACHISM.  JEROME. 

Jerome  was  the  great  advocate  of  rnonachism  in  the 
West.  He  began  and  closed  his  career  as  a  monk  in 
Palestine.  His  great  work,  the  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  into  Latin,  was  performed  in  Palestine,  in 
a  cell  at  Bethlehem.  He  engaged  in  the  study  of 
Hebrew  as  a  severe  occupation,  to  withdraw  him  from 
impure  and  worldly  thoughts,  which  his  austerities  had 
not  entirely  subdued.  When  weary  with  the  difficult 
task  of  converting  Hebrew  into  Latin,  he  would  seek 
solace  in  the  elegant  pages  of  Cicero,  or  in  the  musical 
periods  of  Plato.  But  the  scrupulous  conscience  of 
Jerome  would  sometimes  tremble  at  the  profane  admix- 
ture of  sacred  and  profane  studies.  There  is  little 
doubt,  however,  that  his  love  for  the  great  authors  of 
Greece  and  Rome  greatly  contributed  to  the  polish  of 
his  style  in  the  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
purity  that  distinguished  the  writers  of  the  Augustan 
age  had  greatly  degenerated  in  the  time  of  Tertullian 
and  of  Ammianus  Marcellinus.  The  vivid  and  glowing 
style  of  the  Vulgate  Bible  is  thought,  by  scholars, 
to  be  the  result  of  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
pages  of  TuUy  and  Plato. 

Jerome  was  ordained  a  presbyter,  but  was  never 
made  a  bishop.  He  left  to  Ambrose,  to  Chrysostom, 
and  to  Augustine  the  authority  of  office,  and  was  con- 
tent with  the  influence  he  exercised  by  personal  com- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  153 

munication  and  the  effect  of  his  writings.  He  passed 
his  youth  in  Hterary  studies  at  Rome  during  the  episco- 
pate of  Damasus.  He  consulted  the  Hbraries  of  many 
of  the  cities  of  the  East.  He  was  received  in  Cyprus 
by  the  bishop  Epiphanius.  In  Syria  he  plunged  into 
the  deepest  asceticism. 

Jerome  was  born  in  Dalmatia,  but  may  be  consid- 
ered as  a  Roman,  as  he  passed  his  early  years  and 
received  his  education  at  Rome.  Jerome  was  deeply 
imbued,  as  we  have  said,  with  the  spirit  of  mon- 
achism ;  he  labored  to  awaken  the  tardy  West  to  rival 
Egypt  and  Syria  in  what  he  considered  to  be  the  sub- 
lime perfection  of  Christianity.  He  influenced,  while 
at  Rome,  matrons  and  virgins  of  patr'cian  families  to 
adopt  the  monastic  life.  They  attempted  to  practice  in 
a  busy  metropolis  the  rigid  observances  of  the  desert. 

Christianity  in  its  genius  and  origin  is  opposed  to 
monachism,  which  had  little  encouragement  either  from 
the  precepts  or  practice  of  its  Divine  Author.  "  Go  ye 
into  all  the  world  and  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  crea- 
ture," was  His  command.  Yet  the  monastic  system  is 
not  peculiar  to  Christianity  ;  the  Jews  had  their  her- 
mitages and  their  cenobitic  institutions.  The  Essenes,  a 
sect  of  the  Jews  in  the  days  of  our  Lord,  were  ascetics. 

Anthony  is  usually  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
monastic  life ;  but  it  is  clear  he  only  imitated  and 
excelled  less  famous  anchorites.  He  was  born  of  Chris- 
tian parents,  bred  up  in  the  faith.  At  an  early  age  he 
found  himself  possessed  of  considerable  wealth.  He 
determined  to  imitate  the  example  of  those  Christians 
who,  in  primitive  times,  "had  laid  their  wealth  at  the 
apostles'  feet."  He  was  a  native  of  Egypt.  He  re- 
tired to  the  base  of  a  rocky  mountain,  and  took  up  a 


154  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

solitary  abode,  but  made  it  a  pleasant  spot,  with  vines 
and  shrubs.  An  ancient  monastery  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Red  Sea  still  preserves  the  name  and  memory  of 
the  saint.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  great 
Athanasius,  and  this  Egyptian  hermit  declined  an  invi- 
tation from  the  emperor  Constantine  to  visit  his  court. 

Many  colonies  of  monks,  after  the  example  of  An- 
thony, settled  upon  the  rocks  of  Thebais,  the  deserts  of 
Libya,  and  in  the  cities  of  the  Nile.  Athanasius,  says 
Gibbon,  introduced  into  Rome  the  knowledge  and 
practice  of  the  monastic  life ;  and  a  school  of  this  new 
philosophy  was  opened  by  the  disciples  of  Anthony  at 
the  threshold  of  the  Vatican. 

"It  is  impossible  to  survey  monachism,"  says  our 
author  Milman,  "  in  its  general  influence  from  the  earli-' 
est  period  of  its  interworking  into  Christianity,  without 
being  perplexed  at  its  opposite  effects.  Here,  it  is  the 
undoubted  parent  of  the  most  ferocious  bigotry,  some- 
times of  debasing  licentiousness  —  there,  monastic  insti- 
tutions become  the  guardians  of  learning,  the  authors 
of  civilization,  the  propagators  of  an  humble  and  peace- 
ful religion.  While  much  of  the  gross  superstition  of 
the  Byzantine  Church  is  to  be  traced  to  the  dominant 
spirit  of  monachism,  to  the  same  spirit  in  the  West 
must  be  attributed  much  that  was  salutary,  its  constant 
aggression  on  barbarism  and  its  connection  with  Latin 
literature.  If  human  nature  was  degraded  by  the 
neglect  of  personal  cleanliness  and  the  fanatical  self- 
torture,  the  callous  apathy  and  occasional  sanguinary 
violence  of  the  Egyptian  or  Syrian  monk,  yet  it  must 
be  recollected  that  the  monastic  retreats  sent  forth  men 
like  the  Basils  and  Chrysostoms.  Was  their  devotion 
to  Christianity  strengthened  by  their  detachment  from 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1 55 

mankind  ?  Certainly  not,  we  think.  The  Basils  and  Chry- 
sostoms  were  great  and  good,  in  spite  of  the  monastic 
system.*  These  monastic  retreats  were  the  best  places 
for  education  and  development  that  the  world  then 
presented.  The  world,  at  the  time  of  which  we  are 
writing,  was  a  theatre  for  embattled  hosts,  Chrysos- 
tom  and  Basil  spent  much  of  their  time  (when  they 
emerged  from  monasteries),  in  great  cities,  combating 
evil.  The  sermons  preached  by  Chrysostom  against 
the  vices  of  the  court  of  Constantinople,  were  replete 
with  eloquent  invective." 

What  can  be  more  contrary  to  the  beneficent  spirit 
of  Christianity,  what  more  opposed  to  the  attributes  of 
God  as  revealed  to  us  by  our  Lord  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, than  some  features  of  the  monastic  system,  as 
revealed  in  the  Byzantine  Church  and  by  some  of  the 
monks  of  Egypt?  Yet  it  must  be  acknowledged  that 
there  was  a  grandeur  of  soul  in  some  of  these  men  and 
women  who  rose  above  worldly  cares  and  anxieties, 
from  a  genuine  desire  of  improving  the  moral  condition 
of  their  fellow-men,  willing  to  forego  all  the  pleasures 
of  life,  as  they  are  termed,  that  they  might  impart 
spiritual  hopes  to  the  wretched  and  barbarous.  It  must 
be  concluded,  that  amid  the  blindness,  superstition  and 
ferocity  of  the  monastic  life,  there  were  noble  charac- 
ters among  them,  taught  of  God,  who  effected  much 
good. 

We  see  now,  in  our  enlightened  days,  the  obvious 
evil   tendencies   of  this   system.      It  tends  to   deaden 


*  It  is  an  irresistible  conclusion,  that  monasteries,  in  those  days 
when  the  earth  was  filled  with  violence,  and  was  a  theatre  for  embattled 
hosts,  were  the  best  places  for  education  and  development.  They  served 
a  good  purpose  in  a  dark  age. 


156       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

natural  affection,  it  mars  the  sweet  charities  of  hfe,  it 
tempts  the  weak-minded  to  dissolve  the  natural  ties 
that  our  Father  and  nature  have  thrown  about  them, 
and  consort  with  strangers.  Seclusion  from  mankind 
is  as  dangerous  to  enlightened  religion  as  it  is  to 
Christian  charity.  Yet  self-denial  is  imperative  to  the 
Christian,  and  the  limiting  and  confining  our  love  to 
those  who  love  us  is  certainly  forbidden  by  our  Great 
Teacher. 

"If  ye  love  your  brethren  only,  what  do  ye  more 
than  others?"  Something  of  the  same  spirit  that  in- 
duced Anthony  and  many  others  to  retire  from  the 
world  and  seclude  themselves  in  monasteries,  manifests 
itself  in  this  age  by  a  missionary  spirit,  that  sends  them 
out  "into  all  the  world  "  to  teach  the  ignorant  and  pro- 
claim to  the  heathen  "the  unsearchable  riches  of 
Christ."  This  is  a  return  to  the  practice  of  the  early 
Christians  in  the  primitive  ages,  and  in  simple  obedi- 
ence to  the  command  of  the  Master.  Both  forms  of 
zeal,  though  seemingly  opposite,  have  proceeded  from 
the  longings  of  the  immortal  soul  to  reach  a  higher  life. 
The  missionary  spirit  is  more  consonant  to  the  practice 
and  precepts  of  our  Lord  than  the  conventual  system. 
The  experience  of  the  world  has  proved  that  the  assem- 
bling of  men  and  women  in  religious  hpuses,  with  the 
fanciful  idea  of  promoting  holiness  and  increasing  the 
knowledge  of  God,  is  fallacious,  and  in  some  sad  in- 
stances has  tended  to  fearful  superstition  and  licentious- 
ness. The  cloister  is  in  these  days  an  unnecessary 
feature  in  the  religious  world.  It  is  as  a  fungus  on 
trees  of  righteousness,  eating  out  the  heart  and  healthy 
substance  of  true  religion. 

Good  men  and  women   doubtless   live  within  the 


A 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       1 5/ 

walls  of  a  convent ;  but  to  immure  oneself,  and  to  break 
asunder  the  ties  that  God  and  nature  have  imposed, 
seems  to  us  a  sad  misinterpretation  of  the  teachings  of 
the  New  Testament.  In  times  of  misrule  and  war, 
when  armies  of  barbarians  were  shaking  Europe  with 
a  heavy  tread,  conventual  establishments  were  neces- 
sary and  served  a  noble  purpose.  Then  they  served  as 
schools  for  the  young,  and  retreats  for  the  aged.  Here 
learning  and  religion  took  refuge  from  the  soldiery  and 
the  din  of  arms.  In  the  monastery,  books  were  tran- 
scribed, and  valuable  archives,  both  political  and 
religious,  were  preserved.  A  great  debt  is  due  to  the 
monks  of  the  middle  ages  for  their  efforts  in  preserving 
valuable  records,  especially  those  which  related  to 
Christianity.  It  is  true,  that,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of 
writing  materials,  many  a  palimpsest  or  parchment  was 
made  valueless  by  some  ignorant  monk  when  he  erased 
the  valuable  record  to  transcribe  his  own  musings. 

"The  abbeys,"  says  Mr.  Froude,  "that  towered  in 
the  midst  of  the  English  towns,  with  the  houses  clus- 
tered at  their  feet,  like  subjects  round  some  majestic 
queen,  were  images  of  the  supremacy  which  the  Church 
of  the  middle  ages  had  asserted  for  itself.  The  heavenly 
graces  had  once  descended  upon  the  monastic  orders, 
making  them  ministers  of  mercy,  patterns  of  celestial 
life.  Then  it  was  that  art  and  genius  poured  out  their 
treasures  to  raise  fitting  tabernacles  to  the  Father  of 
mankind  and  of  His  especial  servants.  The  poor  out- 
casts of  society  gathered  around  these  hallowed  walls — 
the  debtor,  the  felon  and  the  outlaw.  These  abbeys  of 
the  middle  ages  abode  through  the  storms  of  war  and 
conquest,  like  the  ark  upon  the  waves  of  the  flood ;  in 
the  midst  of  violence  remaining  inviolate,  through  the 


158  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

awful  reverence  that  surrounded  them.  The  abbeys  at 
the  time  they  were  visited  by  Henry's  ministers,  just 
before  their  dissolution,  were  as  little  like  they  had 
been  once,  as  a  living  man  in  the  pride  of  his  growth 
resembles  the  loathsome  corpse  which  the  earth  hastens 
to  hide  forever.," 

In  the  year  1489,  Pope  Innocent  the  Eighth, 
moved  by  the  stories  that  reached  his  ears,  of 
the  corruption  of  certain  monasteries  in  England, 
granted  a  commission  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
to  investigate  this  matter.  The  result  of  the  inquiry 
contained  overwhelming  proof  of  the  corruption  and 
defilement  of  the  holy  places.  The  monastery  of  St. 
Albans  is  specially  mentioned  as  having  been  the 
theatre  of  great  and  abounding  iniquity.  But  the 
abbot  was  yiot  deposed,  but  severely  reprimanded  to 
amend  his  doings. 

Some  say  these  imputations  are  false  and  exagger- 
ated, but  the  charges  to  which  we  have  just  alluded 
were  brought  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  Morton, 
Henry  VII. 's  minister,  legate  of  the  Apostolic  See,  in 
a  letter  addressed  to  the  abbot  of  St.  Albans  himself. 
The  abbot  of  St.  Albans  was  a  peer  of  the  realm, 
living  but  a  few  miles  from  London.  Queen  Mary's 
agents  destroyed  the  records  of  the  visitation  of  the 
monasteries  in  her  father's  time,  but  there  is  abundant 
evidence  extant  in  the  official  letters  of  the  Cotton 
library,  many  of  which  have  been  published  by  the 
Camden. Society.*  Bishop  Latimer  tells  us,  that  when 
the  report  of  the  visitors  of  the  abbeys  was  read  in  the 
Commons  House,  there  rose  from  all  sides  of  the  house 

*  Froude. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1 59 

the  cry  ^^  Down  with  them."  Wolsey,  a  devoted  son 
of  the  Church,  first  made  pubHc  the  infamies  which 
disgraced  the  Roman  Catholic  monasteries.  Their 
glory  had  departed,  but  many  modern  writers  affect  to 
disbelieve  the  testimony  of  those  great  men. 

The  general  visitation  was  made  fifty  years  later 
than  the  inquest  made  by  Morton,  the  minister  of 
Henry  VII.  It  is  probable  that  for  several  centuries 
the  monasteries  had  been  verging  to  decay  and  dissolu- 
tion, from  their  hypocrisy  and  corruption. 

Though  the  dark  tints  predominate  in  a  true  picture 
drawn  of  the  monasteries  in  the  sixteenth  century,  yet 
in  the  latest  era  of  monasticism  in  England,  there  were 
some  types  yet  lingering  of  an  older  and  better  age. 
There  was  certainly  much  heroism  shown  by  some  of 
monks  of  the  Charterhouse,  an  order  of  the  Carthusians, 
who  chose  to  die,  rather  than  perjure  themselves  in  the 
matter  of  the  king's  supremacy.  Some  of  these  died 
heroically,  as  did  More  and  Fisher. 

The  word  monk  occurs  first  in  the  fourth  century. 
The  monks  were  divided  into  Cenobites  and  Eremites, 
the  former  class  lived  in  communities,  the  latter  in 
lonely  and  desolate  places. 

Self-denial  is  certainly  a  Christian  requirement,  but 
the  monastic  system,  as  such,  fulfilled  its  destiny  more 
than  three  hundred  years  ago.*  It  is  a  system  divorced 
from  healthy  life,  too  often  a  thing  of  creed  and  cere- 
mony, which  leaves  the  lower  nature  unaffected  and 
unsubdued,  and  the  heart  untouched  by  true  love  to 
God  and  our  neighbor.  Institutions  under  the  care  of 
the    church,    whether   Roman   Catholic   or   Protestant, 

*  Froude. 


l6o  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

whose  design  is  to  train  persons  into  useful  knowledge, 
that  they  may  be  able  to  serve  in  this  world  of  ours  in 
any  capacity  to  which  they  may  be  called  by  the  provi- 
dence of  God,  must  ever  be  necessary  "until  time  shall 
be  no  longer." 

But  while  monastic  establishments  are  no  longer 
needed  in  a  land  of  light  and  liberty,  there  is  one 
branch  of  this  system  that  must  commend  itself  in  its 
main  features  to  every  Christian  heart.  We  mean  the 
institution  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  These  are  the 
missionaries  to  the  desolate  garret,  seeking  the  poor, 
the  sick  and  the  friendless.  They  are  found  in  the 
obscure  retreats  of  our  crowded  cities,  bearing  the  mes- 
sage of  the  Gospel  to  the  dying.  Let  deaconesses  or 
sisters  of  mercy  be  raised  up  by  Christians  of  every 
name  to  carry  forward  works  of  benevolence  and  mercy. 
Phebe  was  a  servant  of  the  Church  in  apostolic  days. 
She  was  the  messenger  of  St.  Paul  on  one  occasion  from 
Cenchrea,  a  port  of  Corinth,  to  the  Romans. 

Before  we  leave  the  subject  of  monasticism,  we  must 
mention  Benedict*  of  Nursia,  as  he  was  called.  This 
famous  founder  of  the  Benedictine  Order  was  born  in  480. 
His  sister  Scolastica,  who  seems  to  have  been  as  great 
an  enthusiast  as  himself,  dwelt  near  him.  Their  influence 
in  self-denial  and  energy  were  manifested  by  the  spread 
of  Benedictine  monasteries  throughout  Italy,  from 
Calabria  to  the  Po.  Totila,  a  Gothic  monarch,  was  re- 
proved by  him  and  induced  to  lead  a  better  life.  St. 
Maur  introduced  Benedictine  monasteries  into  France. 
The  name  of  St.  Maur  is  dear  to  letters.     With  Augus- 

'*  The    Benedictines   preserved   and   copied  many  volumes  of  the 
ancient  literature. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  l6l 

tine,  the  missionary  to  the  Saxons,  the  Benedictine 
rule  passed  into  England.  The  fairest  spots  in  England 
were  chosen  for  the  monasteries.  Abbeys  rose  and 
fell  like  other  institutions.  The  rural  districts,  which 
in  early  Christian  times  were  given  up  to  Paganism, 
were  gradually  drawn  into  these  communities  by  the 
establishment  of  hermitages  and  monasteries  in  their 
neighborhood.  The  very  name  "Pagan"  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  the  villages*  of  Italy  so  long  resisted 
the  teaching  of  Christianity. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  the  violent  fanaticism  of 
the  Eastern  monks.  The  monks  of  the  Western  Church 
were  usually  very  different.  They  spent  their  time,  as 
do  our  modern  missionaries,  in  useful  labors. 


"  Pagus,"  a  village. 


l62  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

A.  D.  402. — The  fifth  century  commences  with  In- 
nocent I.  Rome  seemed  deserted  by  both  her  emper- 
ors ;  one  reigned  in  Ravenna,  the  other  in  Constanti- 
nople. The  aristocracy  of  the  sacred  city  had  been 
scattered  by  Alaric.  In  the  fifth  century  the  bishops 
of  Rome  were  respected  by  the  barbarians.  In  this 
century  the  Roman  See  in  dignity  and  in  the  regular 
succession  of  its  prelates,  stood  alone  and  unapproach- 
able. Some  of  the  sees  of  the  East  had  been  contami- 
nated by  Arian  prelates.  The  fierce  rivalries  of  Alex- 
andria and  Constantinople  had  induced  the  contending 
partisans  to  appeal  to  Rome. 

The  great  Ambrose  *  was  dead.  Chrysostom, 
though  still  living,  was  the  victim  of  persecution. 
Rome  had  steadily  held  the  doctrines  of  Athanasius 
without  wavering.  Valentinian  II.  made  a  law  in  381 
that  the  councils  differing  in  Trinitarian  and  Arian  doc- 
trines should  appeal  to  Rome.  There  was  at  this  time 
no  commanding  mind  in  the  West  that  could  obscure 
the  rising  fame  of  Innocent  I.  Upon  the  mind  of  this 
bishop  now  seemed  to  dawn  the  ecclesiastical  suprem- 
acy of  Rome.  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  was 
a  bold,  bad  man,  and  a  virulent  persecutor  of  the  eloquent 
Chrysostom.  Innocent  I.  took  the  part  of  the  bishop 
of  Constantinople.  This  was  the  popular  side.  The 
East,  however,  resented  the  interference.     The  Roman 


•Once  the  influential  bishop  of  Milan. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1 63 

Pontiffs,  from  the  time  of  Innocent  I.,  began  to  found 
their  supremacy  in  their  supposed  succession  of  St. 
Peter ;  but  the  world  at  large  looked  up  to  Rome 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  civil  supremacy  of  the  city. 
There  was  a  prestige  in  her  former  majesty  and  renown 
that  could  not  be  forgotten.  The  Pope  was  head  of 
Christendom,  because  he  was  the  bishop  of  the  first 
city  in  the  world.  While  the  bishops  of  Rome  and 
other  cities  of  the  West  were  strengthening  their  power 
over  the  hearts  and  minds  of  men,  and  not  troubling 
themselves  with  metaphysical  subtleties  of  doctrine, 
the  bishops  of  the  great  Eastern  sees  were  engaged  in 
ignoble  strife.  Nestorius,  Bishop  of  Constantinople, 
contended  that  Christ  was  the  God-man,  and  repudi- 
ated the  term,*  "Mother  of  God,"  that  was  at  this 
time  frequently  applied  to  Mary  the  Mother  of  Christ. 
Cyril,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  became  the  fierce 
persecutor  of  Nestorius.  Who  would  not,  says  an  elo- 
quent writer,  prefer  to  meet  his  .Redeemer  in  judgment 
with  the  doctrinal  errors  of  Nestorius  (if  they  were 
errors)  rather  than  with  the  barbarities  of  Cyril.  Much 
blame  has  rested  upon  the  memory  of  Cyril  with  regard 
to  Hypatia,  who  was  murdered  in  the  streets  of  Alex- 
andria by  fanatical  monks.  It  is  alleged  that  his  great 
influence  might  have  been  used  to  control  the  mob  that 
destroyed  this  accomplished  Greek  woman.  The  ex- 
citement produced  in  the  Eastern  Church  by  the  dis- 
cussion of  abstruse  metaphysical  questions  present  some 
painful  chapters  in  the  history  of  the  Greek  Church. 
The  Arian  controvery  was  finally  settled  by  Theodosius 
about  the  year  380. 

*VVe,  like  Nestorius,  are  repelled  by  the  term  "Mother  of  God." 
Mary  is  nowhere  in  the  New  Testament  called  the  Mother  of  God. 


164  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

The  heresy  of  Macedonius,  Bishop  of  Constanti- 
nople, who  taught  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  a  divine 
energy,  and  not  a  person  distinct  from  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  was  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople in  381. 

"Two  other  controversies  after  this  time  produced 
much  excitement.  One  was  headed  by  Nestorius,  to 
whom  we  have  already  alluded.  Nestorius  maintained 
there  are  two  persons  in  Christ — the  divine  and  the 
human.  This  error  was  condemned  by  the  Council  of 
Ephesus,  A.  D.  431.  The  other  controversy  was  headed 
by  Eutyches,  a  monk  of  Constantinople,  who  taught 
that  there  is  but  one  nature  in  Christ — that  of  the  Word, 
who  became  incarnate.  This  opinion  was  condemned 
in  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  a.  d.  451.  The  doctrine 
of  the  Universal  Church  was  then  defined  to  be  that  in 
Jesus  Christ  there  is  but  07ie  person,  yet  two  natures  no 
way  confounded.  The  decisions  of  these  fonr  councils 
have  been  received  by  the  whole  of  Christendom,  East 
and  West,  as  the  true  exposition  of  the  faith." 

The  Pelagian  question  agitated  the  West  during  the 
last  years  of  Innocent's  Pontificate.  Pelagius  was  a 
Briton.  Christianity  had  been  planted  in  Britain  very 
early,  Pelagius  went  to  Rome  in  409,  and  was  the 
founder  of  a  religious  system.  The  peculiar  tenet  of 
Pelagius  was  his  denial  of  original  sin.  Some  obscurity 
clings  to  his  system.  Though  an  earnest  Christian,  he 
seemed  to  reject  the  doctrine  of  "justification  by  faith." 
He  claimed  that  infants  inherit  eternal  life,  though  not 
baptized.  The  disciples  of  St.  Augustine  opposed  him. 
Pelagius  formed  no  sect,  but  his  system,  though  con- 
demned, retained  its  advocates. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  l6$ 

The    CJinrch   of  to-day  *   doubtless    contains    many- 
members  who  hold  his  peculiar  opinions  without  know- 
ing that  they  pertain  to  any  system  of  theology.     The 
African  churches  repudiated  with  one  voice  the  reason- 
ings of  Pelagius.      They  adopted  entirely,  as  far  as  they 
could  understand  them,  the  doctrinal  views  of  St.  Augus- 
tine,   the   great   Bishop   of  Hippo.     The  most   distin- 
guished advocate  of  semi-Pelagian  views  was  Cassianus. 
He  went  to  Constantinople  and  became  a  favorite  pupil 
of  Chrysostom,    whose   writings   were  adverse  to  the 
predestinarian  system  of  Augustine.     Semi-Pelagianism 
aspired  to  hold   the  balance  between  Pelagius  and  Au- 
gustine.     It  repudiated  the  heresy  of  the  denial  of  orig- 
inal sin.      It  asserted  divine  grace.     The  semi-Pelagians, 
though  censured  in  several  councils,  formed  no  separate 
or  hostile  communities.      Pelagius,  it  is  said,  was  once 
arraigned  for  false  doctrine  at  Lydda,  in  Palestine,  be- 
fore   fourteen    prelates.      His    accusers    spoke    Latin, 
while  the  bishops  spoke  Greek.      Pelagius  spoke  both 
languages.      It  is  said  the  Fathers  were  imposed  on  by 
the  plausible  dialectics  of  Pelagius.     The  confusion  of 
tongues  made  it  difficult  for  the  council  to  understand 
with  clearness,  or  to  detect  heresy  in  his  subtle  defini- 
tions.     He  was  solemnly  acquitted  at  this  council.     As 
a  Western   monk,    however,  he  was  amenable  to  the 
tribunal  of  Rome.      His  theological  opponents   lost  no 
time  in   appealing  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome.      Pelagius, 
also,  wrote  a  letter  explaining  fully  his  views,  but  be- 
fore the  letter  reached   Rome  Innocent  I.  was  dead ! 
Fosimus,  his  successor,  was  a  Greek,  and  was  disposed 


*  Leaders  of  thought  to-day  reecho  the  doctrine  of  Pelagius  in  de- 
nying orignal  sin. 


l66       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

to  treat  the   Pelegian   heresy  as  a  matter  of  Httle  im- 
portance. 

The  whole  theology  of  Chrysostom,  of  whom  we 
have  already  spoken,  was  a  practical  appeal  to  the  free 
will  of  man.  The  depravity  against  which  he  inveighs 
is  a  personal  spontaneous  surrender  to  evil  practices 
and  influences,  to  be  broken  off  by  a  vigorous  effort  of 
religious  faith,  to  be  controlled  by  self-imposed  relig- 
ious discipline.  So  far  as  is  consistent  with  prayer  and 
earnest  seeking,  man  is  the  master  of  his  own  destiny. 
The  two  great  masters  of  theology — Augustine  and 
Chrysostom — had  grappled  deeply  with  the  great  mys- 
teries of  the  New  Testament,  the  sovereignty  of  God, 
and  the  free  agency  of  man."  * 

*'0,  Thou  in  heaven  and  earth,  the  only  peace 
Found  out  for  mankind,  under  wrath! 

Be  thou  in  Adam's  room  ;  the  Head  of  all,  though  Adam's  son. 
Thy  merit  imputed  shall  absolve  all  who  renounce 
Their  cnvn  deeds,  and  from  Thee  receive  new  life." 

God's  sovereign  grace  was  the  favorite  theme  of 
the  African  Bishop,  and  the  free  will  of  man  the  inspir- 
ing subject  of  Chrysostom.  The  predestinarian  doc- 
trines of  Augustine  seemed  not  to  be  congenial  to  the 
Greek  mind.  Augustine,  after  the  death  of  Ambrose, 
was  the  great  authority  in  theology.  His  great  work, 
"The  City  of  God,"  was  written  to  silence  the  remon- 
strances and  wipe  out  the  aspersions  of  Paganism. 

Innocent  I.  was  Pope  f  when  Alaric  entered  Rome. 
Leo  I.  was  Pope  when  Genseric  sacked  Rome.  By 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  the  grand  work  of  the 
spiritual  monarchy  of  Rome  had  been  laid  by  Innocent 


*  Milton.     tOr  Chief  Bishop  of  Rome. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       1 6/ 

I.   and  Leo    I.      Leo   I.    died  before   the  conquest    of 
Odoacer,  a.  d.  476. 

The  immediate  successors  of  Leo  were  subordinate 
to  the  barbarian  kings  of  Rome.  As  a  proof  of  the 
subordinate  condition  of  the  bishops  of  Rome  during 
the  adminstration  of  the  Gothic  kings,  we  are  told 
that  Theodoric  *  determined  to  send  John  L,  who  was 
then  Pope,  on  an  embassy  to  Constantinople.  Justin  was 
then  Emperor.  He  had  forbidden  to  the  Arians  the 
use  and  possession  of  the  churches.  Theodoric  desired 
the  Pope  to  remonstrate  with  the  Emperor  as  to  his 
illiberal  course.  John  was  very  unwilling  to  undertake 
the  mission,  but  there  was  no  appeal  from  the  will  of 
the  Gothic  king.  John  was  required  to  present  to  the 
Eastern  Court  a  written  protest  in  words  like  these : 
"To  pretend  to  a  dominion  over  the  conscience  is  to 
usurp  the  prerogative  of  God  ;  in  the  nature  of  things, 
the  power  of  sovereigns  ought  to  be  confined  to  polit- 
ical government.  The  most  dangerous  heresy  is  the 
belief  that  a  sovereign  may  separate  from  a  part  of  his 
subjects  because  their  creed  differs  from  his  own." 
Yet  this  king  of  noble  sentiments,  who  had  acted  con- 
sistently with  his  "golden  words"  until  the  latter  part 
of  his  reign,  suffered  himself  to  be  misled  by  some 
unprincipled  members  of  his  household.  These  offi- 
cers of  his  palace  created  suspicion  in  the  breast  of  the 
monarch  against  two  of  the  most  virtuous  and  dis- 
tinguished men  of  Rome — Boethius  and  Symmachus. 
Gibbon  depicts  with  a  master's  hand  the  virtues  and 
great  learning  of  these  men.      He  says    Boethius  was 

*  Theodoric  became  king  of  Rome  490.     He  was  an  Ostrogoth. 


l68  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  last  of  the  Romans  whom  Cato  or  Tully  would  have 
acknowledged  as  their  countryman. 

We,  however,  have  introduced  this  episode  to  show 
how  submissive  the  Popes  of  Rome  were  compelled  to 
be  during  the  sway  of  the  Gothic  king,  Theodoric. 
It  is  not  known  certainly  how  the  Pope  performed  his 
mission.  But  on  his  return  from  the  Greek  capital  he 
is  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  died.  It  is  thought 
that  Theodoric  suspected  the  great  men  *  whom  he 
so  cruelly  executed,  of  a  correspondence  with  the  East, 
inviting  an  invasion.  An  invasion  was  made  shortly 
after  the  death  of  Theodoric.  This  king  was  an  Arian, 
but  he  had  treated  the  Trinitarians,  or  Catholics,  as  they 
were  now  called,  with  much  generosity  and  considera- 
tion. His  latest  days  were  greatly  troubled  with  re- 
morse on  account  of  the  execution  of  Boethius  and 
Symmachus. 

Leo  I.f  was  the  Pope  of  Rome  but  a  short  time  pre- 
vious to  the  subjugation  of  Rome  by  Odoacer  and 
Theodoric.  The  sermons  of  Leo  are  the  first  of  a 
Roman  Bishop  that  have  come  down  to  us.  The 
Bishops  of  Rome  before  his  time  were  inferior  men. 
Leo  dwells  on  the  worship  of  Christ,  not  on  the  Virgin 
and  the  saints.  The  four  Popes  that  preceded  Gregory 
I.  were  inglorious  and  feeble.  When  the  sixth  century 
grew  to  a  close,  Italy,  from  being  a  Gothic  kingdom, 
became  a  province  of  the  Greek  Empire.  Theodoric 
had  been  killed  in  a  battle  against  the  Vandals. 

Rome  was  now  the  second  city  of  the  civilized 
world.     The   Lombards    had  entered   Northern   Italy, 


*  Boethius  and  Symmachus. 

tl-eo  I.  was  Pope  440.     Odoacer  conquered  Rome  476. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  169 

invited,  it  is  said,  by  Narses,  the  late  exarch  of  Ra- 
venna, who  was  stimulated  by  jealousy  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Emperor.  The  Lombards  were  a  fierce  heathen 
people  when  they  entered  Italy. 

Genseric,  the  Vandal  king,  after  remaining  a  year 
or  two  in  Spain,  passed  over  into  Africa,  ravaging  and 
desolating  the  beautiful  and  populous  country.  The 
dioceses  of  the  great  Augustine  and  of  Cyprian,  of 
Carthage,  w^ere  made  desolate.  The  good  offices  of 
the  Bishop  of  Carthage  must  not  be  forgotten,  in  try- 
ing to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  Roman  captives 
carried  off  by  Genseric,  the  gold  of  the  churches  was 
freely  taken  to  buy  their  redemption  from  the  cruel 
conqueror.  The  narrow  tract  of  the  African  court  filled 
with  monuments  of  Roman  art  and  magnificence  was  over 
whelmed  by  the  invasion  of  the  Vandals,  and  soon 
seven  fruitful  provinces  from  Tangier  to  Tripoli  became 
as  a  desert. 

Genseric,  an  Arian  Christian,  nominally  united 
with  the  Donatists,  a  powerful  schismatical  sect,  who 
had  long  troubled  the  churches  of  Africa  with  their 
discontents  and  divisions  to  effect  the  ruin  of  the  coun- 
try. The  Donatists  were  themselves  involved  in  ruin. 
Religious  discord  was  perhaps  almost  as  fatal  to  the 
churches  of  Northern  Africa  as  the  ravages  of  the 
Vandals.  The  Saracens  soon  followed,  and  Mahome- 
tanism  put  out  the  light  of  Christianity.  The  candle- 
stick'^ was  removed  from  its  place,  because  of  sectarian 
dissensions  and  persecutions.  The  Roman  world  was 
girt  by  enemies  on  every  side.  The  entrance  of  the 
heathen  Lombards,  also  the  tyranny  of  the  Exarchs  of 

*  Revelation  of  John  ii.  5. 


I/O  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Ravenna,  caused  the  Italians  to  regret  the  milder  sway 
of  the  Gothic  monarchs. 

John,  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  presuming  on 
the  civil  supremacy  of  his  city,*  claimed  to  be  Uni- 
versal Bishop.  Gregory  I. ,  Bishop  of  Rome,  reproves 
the  presumptuous  John  in  strong  language:  "Is  this 
a  time  to  assume  so  arrogant  a  title,  when  we  are  beset 
by  enemies  on  every  side.  Our  priests  should  bewail 
in  dust  and  ashes  the  sin  and  misery  of  this  unhappy 
time,  instead  of  adopting  profane  appellations  to  grat- 
ify their  pride." 

Am  I  defending  my  own  cause?  Is  your  presump- 
tion an  injury  to  Rome  ?  I  am  pleading  for  the  cause 
of  God,  the  cause  of  the  whole  church.  Gregory  then 
declares  that  he  is  a  prelate  of  a  see  where  there  are 
many  heretics.  Let  every  Christian  heart  reject  the 
blasphemous  name  of  Universal  Bishop.  It  was  once 
applied,  he  continues,  to  the  see  of  Rome  by  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  in  honor  of  St.  Peter,  but  the 
more  humble  pontiffs  rejected  the  title  as  injurious  to 
the  rest  of  the  priesthood.  Gregory  brands  the  arro- 
gance of  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople  as  a  sign  of  the 
coming  of  Antichrist.  He  compares  this  movement  to 
that  of  Satan,  who  aspired  to  be  highest  in  the  hier- 
archy of  angels.  No  one  in  the  church  has  yet  dared 
to  usurp  the  name  of  Universal  Bishop.  It  is  sacrilege. 
Gregory  I,  wrote  these  words  with  great  sincerity,  but 
a  few  years  after  the  death  of  this  good  Pope  the  in- 
famous Emperor  Phocas  pronounced  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  Universal  Bishop.  The  Greek  Emperor  Phocas 
gave  this  title  to  the  prelate  at  Rome,  because  he  hated 


*  Rome  was  at  this  time  subject  to  the  Greek  Empire. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       I /I 

the  patriarch  of  his  own  city.  This  hatred,  it  is  said, 
arose  from  the  kindness  and  protection  afforded  by  the 
Patriarch  to  the  family  of  Maurice,  the  predecessor  of 
Phocas. 

In  the  interval  between  Gregory  I.  and  Gregory  II. 
there  were  twenty-four  Bishops  or  Popes  of  Rome. 
Gregory  I.  was  justly  called  the  Great,  because  of  his 
wise  administration  of  religious  affairs  at  a  very  trying 
time.  He  it  was  who  sent  Augustine  as  a  missionary 
to  the  Saxons,  when  he  became  Bishop  of  Rome.  The 
old  story,  with  regard  to  the  beautiful  fair  Saxon  boys 
with  flaxen  hair,  whom  Gregory  saw  in  a  slave  market 
at  Rome,  has  often  been  told,  but  never  more  strikingly 
related  than  recently  by  Dean  Stanley.*  "Gregory 
was  deeply  impressed  by  the  appearance  of  these 
heathen  children.  He  resolved  to  go  as  a  missionary 
to  the  Saxons,  or  at  once  to  send  one.  He  was  too 
much  needed  at  Rome  to  go.  He,  therefore,  sent  Au- 
gustin,t  with  forty  monks,  from  'a  convent  on  the  old 
Celian  Hill." 

The  British  Christians  had  made  little  effort  to 
Christianize  their  cruel  and  savage  Saxon  conquerors. 
Augustin  was  anxious  to  meet  the  British  clergy. 
He  doubtless  intended  to  usurp  authority  over  the 
British  churches  of  Wales.  The  British  Bishops  and 
Presbyters  met  and  conferred  with  Augustin  and  his 
monks;  but  as  they  differed  somewhat  in  their  Liturgy, 
and  in  other  customs,  especially  in  the  time  of  the 
proper  observance  of  the    Easter  festival,    the  British 


*  ♦'  Notes  on  Canterbury,"  Stanley. 

t  Augustin,  missionary  to   the  Saxons  in  England,  was  very  differ- 
ent from  the  great  Augustine  of  the  fourth  century. 


1/2  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Christians  for  a  long  time  refused  to  obey  the  Roman 
rule. 

Gregory,  in  his  letters  from  Rome,  gave  Augustin 
wise  counsel,  urging  him  to  conciliate  the  Britons,  and 
allow  them  to  use  their  own  liturgy.  Gregory  I.  was 
wise  and  conciliatory.  He  arranged  a  book  of  services. 
He  did  his  utmost  to  train  the  Romans  in  self-discipline 
and  to  soften  the  Teutons.  He  arranged  the  chants 
that  are  still  called  by  his  name,  though  both  the 
chants  and  the  services  were  probably  derived  from 
earlier  models.  There  are  letters  extant*  from  Greg- 
ory to  Augustin,  advising  him  how  to  deal  with  other 
Christian  communities,  especially  with  the  old  British 
churches.  When  you  meet,  he  said,  with  anything 
really  good  in  these  churches,  you  must  adopt  it. 
"Things  are  not  to  be  loved  for  the  sake  of  places,  but 
places  for  the  sake  of  things."  Augustin,  however, 
seems  to  have  been  haughty  in  his  intercourse  with  the 
Britons,  and  little  disposed  to  regard  their  prejudices. 
It  is  said  that  when  Augustin  first  met  some  of  the 
British  bishops  and  clergy  in  council,  under  an  oak  tree, 
the  monk  Augustin  behaved  with  haughty  sever- 
Jty. 

The  parents  of  Gregory  I.  were  noble  Romans. 
His  grandfather  had  been  Bishop  of  Rome.  When 
Maurice  was  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  Gregory  was 
sent  to  this  great  city  of  the  East  as  Nuncio  of  the 
See  of  Rome. 

Justin  the  Younger,  in  574,  had  appointed  Gregory 
Prefect  of  Rome.  He  acceded  to  the  Papacy  soon  after 
his  return  from  Constantinople.      He  was  distinguished 

*  Dean  Stanley. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1/3 

not  only  for  his  religious  zeal  and  charity,  but  for  his 
learning,  his  knowledge  of  philosophy  of  civil  law  and 
the  canons  of  the  church.  His  ample  fortune  was  de- 
voted to  works  of  piety.  He  built  six  monasteries  in 
Sicily.  In  these  distracted  times  monasteries  were 
necessary  as  houses  of  refuge  from  barbarous  foes,  and 
as  places  of  instruction  for  the  young  and  ignorant. 

The  heathen  king  of  Kent,  who  received  Augus- 
tin,  had  a  Christian  wife,  Bertha.  She  had  a  chaplain 
and  worshiped  in  a  chapel  07tce  used  by  the  British 
Christians.  When  the  Saxons  drove  out  the  British 
Christians,  they  heathenized  the  places  of  Christian 
worship.  After  the  success  of  Augustin,  they  were 
again  converted  into  places  of  Christian  worship.  The 
baptism  of  Ethelbert,  husband  of  Bertha,  took  place 
A.  D.  597. 


174  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

Rome,  says  Gibbon,  at  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century  was  at  the  point  of  her  lowest  depression.  By 
■the  removal  of  the  seat  of  the  empire,  and  the  loss  of 
many  provinces,  the  sources  of  public  and  private 
wealth  were  exhausted.  The  Romans,  too,  suffered 
anxiety  at  this  time  from  the  threatening  Lombards  in 
North  Italy,  and  from  the  despotism  of  the  Greek  em- 
pire. They  were  blessed,  however,  with  the  wise  and 
paternal  pontificate  of  Gregory  I.  Unlike  most  of  his 
successors,  he  frequently  ascended  the  pulpit,  and  by 
his  pathetic  eloquence  kindled  the  congenial  passions  of 
his  audience.  The  minds  of  the  people,  depressed  by 
calamity,  were  directed  to  the  hopes  and  fears  of  the 
invisible  world.  Till  the  last  days  of  his  life,  he  officia- 
ted in  the  imposing  service  of  the  Church.  These 
services  were  made  more  soothing  by  grand  melodious 
chants.  These  melodies  softened  the  fierceness  of  bar- 
barian hearers,  and  tended  to  refine  the  dark  enthusiasm 
of  the  vulgar,  as  well  as  to  strengthen  their  faith  in 
Jesus,  "  the  man  of  sorrows." 

The  sixth  century  knew  little  of  the  baneful  effects 
of  priestcraft.  Gregory  I.,  great  and  good  as  he  was, 
was  somewhat  credulous  and  superstitious.  Under  his 
teaching  the  Arians  in  Italy  and  Spain  were  reconciled 
to  the  Trinitarian,  or  Catholic  Church.  He  as  an 
apostolic  shepherd  watched  over  the  faith  of  the  subor- 
dinate pastors. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1/5 

The  success  of  Augustin*  in  preaching  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  reflected  much  glory  on  the  work  of  Gregory. 
The  calamities  of  these  times,  and  the  excellence  of 
Gregory,  tended  greatly  to  increase  the  power  of  the 
Roman  bishop.  Rome  was  a  central  point,  to  which 
Italy  and  its  surrounding  States  had  long  looked  as  a 
model. 

We  must  now  speak  of  the  mission  of  Augustin. 
We  learn  from  Bede,  a  Saxon  historian  who  lived  in 
the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century,  that  when  Augus- 
tin invited  the  British  bishops  to  conform  to  the  Roman 
rule,  they  positively  refused  to  yield  their  own  customs, 
and  that  they  retired  in  disgust  at  the  pride  of  the 
Roman  agent. 

The  enmity  between  the  Britons  and  Anglo-Saxons 
seems  not  to  have  been  diminished  by  the  conversion 
of  the  latter  nation,  because  their  conversion  was  not 
derived  from  the  conquered  people.  The  Saxons 
received  Christianity  as  it  existed  in  the  days  of  Greg- 
ory I.  The  Britons  had  received  their  knowledge  of 
Christ  through  their  connection  with  the  Eastern 
Church.  For  the  sake  of  protection,  they  afterwards, 
after  much  warfare  and  trouble,  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  the  See  of  Rome.  A  century  of  cruel 
warfare  with  the  heathen  Saxons,  in  which  they  were 
compelled  to  yield  all  the  possessions  they  held  dear, 
did  not  improve  their  tempers,  or  enlighten  the  minds 
of  the  native  Britons.  Jerome  and  Chrysostom  both 
testify  to  the  orthodoxy  of  the  early  British  Christians. 
The  representatives  of  the  British  Church  took  part  in 

*  The  monk  sent  by  Gregory.      He  must  not  be  confounded  with  St. 
Augustine  of  the  fourth  century. 


1/6  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  councils  of  Aries  and  Sardica.     The   enlightened 
Pelagius  and  Celestine  were  Britons. 

When  Gregory  I.  heard  of  the  opposition  of  the 
British  bishops  to  the  liturgy  of  Augustin,  he  counsels 
him  in  these  wise  words :  "Choose  from  each  church 
those  things  that  are  pious  and  good,  and  when 
you  have  made  them,  as  it  were,  up  in  one  body,  let 
the  minds  of  the  people  become  accustomed  thereto." 
Augustin  was  successful  in  Kent,  but  he  made  little 
progress  in  the  other  parts  of  the  island. 

We  have  already  said,  that  after  the  success  of 
Augustin  in  Kent,  the  old  British  churches  were 
purged  from  their  heathenish  character  and  converted 
into  Christian  temples.  Laurentius  was  the  successor 
of  Augustin  in  the  cathedral  of  Canterbury.  Ethelbert, 
the  king  of  Kent,  was  baptized  in  a.  d.  597.  The 
baptisms  of  that  day  were  performed  by  immersion  in 
the  little  rivers  of  the  neighborhood. 

The  authentic  materials  for  the  mission  of  Augustin 
are  almost  entirely  derived  from  Bede's  Ecclesiastical 
History,  written  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century. 
Augustin  died  in  605,  Gregory  I.  in  604, 

The  chief  instruments  in  the  conversion  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  were  Aidan,  Finan  and  Colman,  by 
whom  the  kingdom  of  Mercia  and  the  East  Saxons 
were  Christianized. 

There  were  three  ecclesiastical  parties  in  England  in 
the  closing  of  the  sixth  century  and  in  the  early  part  of 
the  seventh  century,  namely :  The  old  British  church, 
that  had  existed  lor  centuries  before  Augustin  came  to 
England  ;  the  Saxons  converted  by  Irish  missionaries; 
and  the  Saxons  converted  by  Roman  missionaries.  The 
Augustinian  party  prevailed  at  last,  more  by  diplomacy 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       1 7/ 

than  by  missionary  work.  A  synod  for  the  discussion 
of  the  several  views  of  the  three  parties  was  held  at 
Whitby,  at  the  convent  of  the  famous  abbess  Hilda.* 
On  one  side  of  the  controversy  was  Colman,  bishop  of 
Lindisfarne,  on  the  other  was  Wilfrid,  bishop  of  York. 
Wilfrid  had  visited  Rome,  and  was  inclined  to  favor  the 
Roman  view.  Colman  urged  the  descent  of  their  tra- 
dition from  St.  John.  To  this  tradition  also,  Columba, 
the  ardent  missionary  and  bishop  of  Iona,t  clung-  with 
much  reverence.  Wilfrid  maintained  with  great  energy 
the  tradition  of  St.  Peter. 

Gradually  the  Scottish  clergy  and  the  monks  in 
England  ceased  to  dispute,  and  occupied  themselves 
with  what  they  deemed  more  important  matters. 
Those  who  objected  to  the  peculiar  Roman  usages  re- 
tired to  lona,  which  was  long  considered  a  sacred 
place,  famed  for  its  good  works  and  learning,  Colman 
and  his  clergy  retired  to  Ireland, 

The  Britons  who  had  lived  secluded  in  their  Welsh 
mountains,  indulging  in  animosities  that  even  Chris- 
tianity could  not  allay,  were  at  length  brought  into 
peaceful  communication  by  the  monasteries  of  Ireland 
first  with  Northumbria,  and  then  with  the  rest  of 
England.  There  was  a  constant  flow  of  missionaries 
across  the  British  Channel,  who  possessed  much  of 
the  knowledge  which  still  remained  in  Europe.  The 
early  bishops  of  Canterbury  were  foreigners,  also  other 
southern  sees ;  but  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  soon 
ambitious    of    a    native    clergy.       It   is   said  a  native 

*  In  Hilda's  monastery  lived  Csedmon,  the  poet,  who  rehearsed  in 
Saxon  verse  the  whole  sacred  history  as  recorded  in  the  Bible. 

t  A  little  island  in  the  Hebrides,  famous  for  learned  institutions 
and  religion. 


178       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

clergy  grew   up   in   Britain    more  rapidly  than  in  any 
other  of  the  Teutonic  kingdoms. 

Wilfrid  of  York  blended  with  the  rigor  of  a  monk 
a  love  of  magnificence.  His  visits  to  Gaul  and  Italy 
made  him  desire  to  introduce  better  church-buildings 
than  Saxon  architecture  could  produce.  Houses  of 
rude  timber,  thatched  with  reeds,  were  soon  replaced 
by  churches  of  stone  with  windows  of  glass.  Wilfrid's 
present  to  a  church  at  Ripon,  was  a  copy  of  the  four 
gospels,  written  in  letters  of  gold  on  a  purple  ground. 

Romanism,  it  must  be  recollected,  had  not  assumed 
its  modern  form  in  the  time  of  Gregory  I.,  or  in  the 
time  of  Bede.  The  supremacy  of  the  Pope  was  not 
established ;  the  universal  dominion  of  any  Pope  or 
bishop  was  denied  and  strongly  condemned  by  Gregory 
himself.  Nor  was  transubstantiation  yet  accepted,  and 
many  other  dogmas,  now  received  by  the  Romanist, 
were  then  unknown. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  after  they  received  Christianity 
made  great  progress  in  literature.  Bede  translated  the 
New  Testament  (or  a  part  of  it),  into  his  own  tongue. 
Bede,  by  an  amanuensis,  translated  the  last  chapters  of 
St.  John's  gospel  a  few  moments  before  he  expired. 
Adhelm  and  Caedmon  were  famous  for  their  Saxon 
verses.  Caedmon  engaged  the  attention  of  his  unlet- 
tered congregation  by  singing  to  them  the  essential 
doctrines  of  Christianity.  It  is  thought  by  some  that 
C^edmon's  poem  on  the  Creation,  or  the  "Origin  of 
Evil,"  suggested  to  Milton  Paradise  Lost. 

We  must  now  revert  to  a  still  earlier  time,  and 
speak  of  the  most  famous  missionary  of  them  all.  The 
early  conversion  of  Ireland  to  Christianity  is  attributed 
to  the  zealous  preaching  of  St.  Patrick.    Much  obscurity 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       1/9 

jenvelopes  the  time  and  \h^  place  of  his  birth.  He  was 
taken  to  Ireland  as  a  captive,  say  most  writers  on  this 
subject,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  more 
than  a  century  before  Augustin  went  to  England.  He 
escaped  from  captivity  and  w^ent  to  Brittany,  in  France 
(probably  his  native  country ;  thousands  of  Britons  had 
passed  over  to  this  province  in  France,  during  the  long 
war  between  the  Britons  and  Anglo  Saxons,  in  their 
contention  for  Britain  or  England).  The  birth-place  of 
Patrick  is  uncertain,  but  his  zeal  for  the  truth  of  God 
and  his  love  for  the  souls  of  men  is  undoubted.  He  re- 
turned to  Ireland  so  soon  as  he  was  prepared  for  teach- 
ing, and  devoted  his  life  to  the  work  of  an  evangelist. 
His  success  as  a  preacher  was  wonderful ;  he  had  prob- 
ably several  assistants,  as  Ireland  early  became  an  abode 
of  piety  and  learning.  It  has  been  already  said  that 
Irish  and  Scottish  missionaries  had  preceded  Augustin 
in  the  work  of  teaching  Christianity  to  some  of  the 
Anglo  Saxon  kingdoms.  Columba  is  said  to  have 
founded  the  monastery  of  lona,  and  to  Aidan,  monk 
from  Ireland,  is  attributed  the  bishopric  and  monastery 
of  Lindisfarne.  Cuthbert,  the  apostle  of  the  Lowlands 
of  Scotland,  traveled  over  moor  and  mountain  sides  to 
teach  the  peasants  of  Scotland  and  Northumbria.  Bede, 
in  Jiis  day,  calls  Ireland  "the  isle  of  saints."  But  Ire- 
land was  destined  to  suffer  like  England  from  Danish 
invasions,  and  for  a  longer  time.  The  Danes  seized 
the  government  of  Ireland  and  ruled  it  with  severity 
for  a  long  time.  When  the  native  kings  of  Ireland 
ivere  restored  they  did  not  exercise  the  wisdom  of 
Alfred  or  Athelstan. 

But  little  is  known  of  the  history  of  Ireland,  either 
in   Church  or  State,    from   the  time  that   Bede  wrote 


l8o  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

his  history  until  the  twelfth  century.  Bede  died  about 
755.  "I  spent  my  whole  life  in  the  monastery  of 
Jarrow,  in  Northumbria,  "  says  this  learned  man.  ' '  My 
pleasure  lay  in  learning,  teaching  and  writing."  It  is 
paid  that  Bede  learned  Greek  from  the  school  that  the 
Greek  Bishop  Theodore  founded  at  Canterbury.  A 
late  historian,*  says  that  this  good  and  great  man  was 
the  founder  of  medieval  history,  and  \hQ:  first  English 
historian.  A  few  weeks  before  his  death  he  resolved 
to  finish  his  version  of  St.  John's  Gospel  in  English. 
As  he  approached  his  end  he  called  his  scholars  around 
him  and  bade  them  ivnte.  ' '  There  is  still  a  chapter 
wanting,"  said  his  scribe.  "Write  it  quickly,"  said 
the  dying  man.  "It  is  now  finished."  Supported  in 
his  scholars'  arms,  his  face  turned  to  the  spot  where  he 
was  wont  to  pray,  he  passed  away  chanting  "Glory 
to  God."  Before  the  time  of  Bede  and  Alcuin,  both 
Saxons,  some  of  the  priests  knew  little  more  than  the 
Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  Hence  the  importance 
of  the  English  or  Saxon  translation  of  the  Gospel  of 
St.  John.  His  ecclesiastical  history  was  written  in 
Latin.  He  left  many  works  on  different  subjects  to 
attest  his  great  industry.  His  death  took  place  about 
a  century  and  a  half  after  the  landing  of  Augustin. 

It  is  wonderful  that  so  much  was  accomplished  in 
the  propagation  of  Christianity  during  this  time,  when 
we  think  how  the  Roman  world  was  torn  by  disastrous 
wars.  During  the  reign  of  Justinian,  the  Greek  em- 
peror, Rome  changed  her  masters  five  times.  During 
this  period  the  famous  Belisarius  made  and  unmade 
kingdoms  not  for  himself  but  for  his  master  Justinian. 
The  calamities  of  these  times  tended  to  increase  the 


*  Mr.  Green. 


J 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       lOl 

ower  of  the  bishop  of  Rome.  Rome  now  began  to 
jissert  that  her  episcopate  had  been  founded  by  St. 
iPeter,  a  thing  hard  to  disprove  in  times  of  ignorance. 
Nicolas  I.,  in  868,  appealed  to  certain  papers  called 
Dirrctals,  to  strengthen  his  assumption  of  Peter's 
supremacy. 

!  Until  the  time  of  Nicolas  I.  the  only  documents  re- 
garded as  genuine  was  the  collection  of  Dionysius,  be- 
ginning with  Siricius,  in  the  fourth  century,  together 
with  the  documents  by  authentic  councils,  given 
by  Isidore.  Suddenly  the  Pope,  Nicolas,  appeals  to  a 
new  code.  It  was  then  discovered  that  fifty-nine 
spurious  decrees  had  been  added  to  the  old  authentic 
documents.  It  was  pretended  that  these  decrees  were 
made  by  the  twenty  oldest  popes,  from  Clement  to 
Melchiades.  The  pretended  donation  of  Constantine  is 
mentioned  in  these  false  decretals.  The  evident  design 
of  these  spurious  papers  and  letters  was  to  aggrandize 
the  see  of  Rome,  and  to  bring  all  other  sees  in  sub- 
jection to  it.  While  the  power  of  Rome  was  thus 
sought  to  be  increased,  the  Patriarchates  of  Alexan- 
dria, of  Antioch  and  of  Jerusalem  (the  mother  Church) 
were  cast  down  and  discouraged  by  the  influx  of  the 
Mahometans  in  Northern  Africa,  Egypt  and  Syria. 
The  religion  of  the  Moslem  threatened  almost  to 
quench  the  light  of  Christianity  in  these  countries. 
This  extensive  manual*  of  sacerdotal  literature,  un- 
known in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  church,  claimed  for 
Roman  bishops  the  guardianship  and  legislation  of  the 
Christian  Church  throughout  the  world.  Those  schol- 
ars who  have  thoroughly  examined  those  Decretals  say 
that  they  were  not  written  at  Rome.     They  were  evi- 

*■  The  Decretals. 


1 82  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST, 

dently  written,  say  they,  after  the  council  of  Paris,  in 
829.  Metz  is  the  place  designated  where  they  were 
written.  The  archives  of  Rome  show  no  vestiges  of 
any  such  writing.  This  fraud  was  perpetrated  in  the 
ninth  century. 

It  was  in  this  century  that  Charlemagne  made  the 
bishop  of  Rome  a  king.  The  bishop  of  Rome  after- 
wards asserted  that  the  states  of  the  Church  given  to 
the  Papacy  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  were  but  a 
restitution  of  lands  given  by  Constantine,  This  gift, 
claimed  in  the  Decretals  as  Constantine's,  is  acknowl- 
edged by  Roman  Catholics  to  be  a  forgery.  The  lands 
given  to  the  Church  by  Charlemagne  had  been  wrested 
from  the  Lombards.  The  famous  iron  crown 
was  bestowed  upon  a  duke  of  Turin  (successor 
to  the  Lombard  king)  as  a  reward  for  his  efforts  in 
reclaiming  Lombardy  from  Arianism.  The  super- 
stitious of  this  age  alleged  that  this  crown  was  made 
out  of  the  nails  of  the  true  cross.  Though  at  this  time 
the  masses  of  the  people  were  superstitious  and  ignor- 
ant, it  is  said  that  the  Lombards,  ' '  called  the  long- 
bearded  monsters  of  the  North,"  had  acquired,  as  ex- 
hibited in  their  laws,  the  best  fruits  of  civilization.  The 
system  of  laws  framed  by  the  Lombard  king,  Rotharis, 
is  esteemed  the  best  of  the  barbarian  codes.  The  king- 
dom of  Lombardy  in  Italy  was  more  peaceful  and  pros- 
perous than  any  other  which  had  been  formed  from  the 
fragments  of  the  Roman  Empire.  It  was  in  the  reign 
of  Justinian,  and  it  was  the  chief  glory  of  that  reign 
that  the  emperor  employed  the  ablest  lawyers  of  his 
time  in  compiling  the  Code,  the  Pandects  and  the  In- 
stitutes. The  Institutes  contained  the  elementary 
principles  of  law,  the  Code  was  a  revised  edition  of  all 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       1 83 

ie  enactments  from  the  time  of  Adrian,  emperor  of 
Rome.  The  Pandects  were  a  digest  of  the  precedents 
and  decision  of  the  wisest  judges  which  had  been  ac- 
cumulating for  a  thousand  years.  To  extend  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  new  system,  schools  of  law  were  founded 
in  Rome,  Constantinople  and  Beirut. 

In  speaking  of  the  events  of  the  sixth  century,* 
both  in  church  and  state,  we  have  wandered  from  Italy 
to  Britain  or  England  and  then  to  Constantinople.  It 
was  during  the  reign  of  Justinian  that  the  magnificent 
church  of  St.  Sophia  was  built  (now  a  mosque),  and  in 
this  reign  the  culture  of  silk  was  introduced  into  Greece 
by  two  Persian  monks.  But  perhaps  the  most  remark- 
able feature  of  Justinian's  reign  was  the  trampling  of 
mighty  hosts.  Narses  and  Belisarius  led  armies  against 
the  expiring  armies  of  the  Goths  and  against  the  Van- 
dals, assisted  by  the  Huns  and  the  Turks.  Learned 
men  have  had  much  disputation  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
barbarian  hordes.  All  of  them  came  from  Asia  at 
different  periods.  The  Goths  were  on  the  Vistula, 
and  the  Vandals  on  the  Oder  in  the  days  of  the  An- 
tonines.  Though  these  two  people  were  very  dif- 
erent  in  some  respects,  yet  they  belonged  to  the 
great  division  of  the  Suevi.  The  Vandal  race,  once 
so  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  mankind,  have  so 
perished  from  the  face  of  the  earth  that  no  lan- 
guage remains  to  testify  to  their  German,  Sclavonic 
or  independent  origin.  One  province,  Andalusia, 
in  Spain  bears  witness  to  their  abode  in  that  country 
for  a  time.  The  Goths  were  incorporated  with  the 
Spanish  and  French  under  many  tribal  names.  The 
Lombards  impressed  their  name  upon   northern   Italy, 

*  The  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  centuries. 


184  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  Huns  in  Hungary,  and  the  Angles  and  Burgund- 
ians  in  England  and  France.  Their  descendents  in  the 
northern  countries  of  Europe  are  all  comprehended  by 
the  name  of  Teutons  ;  as  the  original  inhabitants  of 
Western  Europe  were  known  by  the  name  of  Celts. 

Early  in  the  eighth  century  Boniface,  a  native  of 
Devonshire,  England,  became  missionary  to  some  of 
the  German  States.  The  language  of  Boniface  closely 
resembled  the  German  dialects.  He  would,  therefore, 
be  more  readily  understood  by  them  than  missionaries 
from  Italy. 

In  715  Boniface  left  his  native  country  and  attempted 
in  vain  to  disseminate  the  doctrines  of  Christ  in  Fries- 
land.  He  was  afterwards  very  successful  in  Thu- 
ringia  and  other  German  provinces.  He  was  made 
bishop  by  Gregory  II.  He  was  assisted  by  Charles 
Martel,  Mayor  of  the  Palace  (he  who  drove  back  the 
Mahometans  from  Tours),  who  appointed  for  him  pious 
and  learned  associates.  With  these  he  had  great  suc- 
cess. It  is  evident  from  traditions  that  have  come 
down  to  us  that  Boniface  did  not  possess  the  meekness 
of  Columba,  who  labored  before  him  in  Alsace.  He 
had  imbibed  some  of  the  sacerdotal  spirit,  which  was 
sometimes  conspicuous  afterward  in  those  who  sought 
honors  from  the  Court  of  Rome.  He  was  called  the 
Apostle  of  Germany,  but  he  was  widely  different,  says 
Mosheim,  from   the  pattern  the  genuine  apostles  have 

left  us. 

"The  honor  and  majesty  of  the  Roman  Pontiff, 
whose  minister  he  was,  seemed  equally  his  care ;  nay, 
more  so  than  the  glory  of  Christ  and  his  religion. 
He  marched  into  Thuringia  at  the  head  of  an  army  and 
used  compulsion  or  artifice,  as  it  suited  him.      If  Boni- 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       1 85 

face  used  unjustifiable  measures  in  attempting  to  bring 
the  heathen  into  the  Church  of  God,  most  grievously 
did  he  answer  for  his  fault.  In  755,  when  he  went 
back  to  Friesland  with  many  associates,  he  was  mur- 
dered by  them,  together  with  fifty  of  the  clergy,  who 
accompanied  him.  Some  years  before  this  time  he  had 
received  from  the  Pope  Zacharias  the  Archbishopric  of 
Metz  and  the  Primary  of  Belgium  as  a  reward  for  his 
vast  labors.  Charlemagne,  in  772,  attempted  the 
Christianizing  of  the  Saxons.  He  first  sent  bishops 
and  monks  to  instruct  them.  Charlemagne  was  as 
much  actuated,  perhaps,  by  political  motives  as  by  re- 
gard for  their  religious  interest.  The  Saxons  were 
troublesome  neighbors,  and  often  interfered  with  the 
rights  of  the  subjects  of  the  great  Emperor  of  the 
West.  The  missionaries  of  peace  and  love  had  small 
success.  War  was  tried  upon  these  rebels  for  two 
successive  years.  Alcuin,*  a  learned  Saxon  of  Charle- 
magne's Court,  gives  his  views  as  to  the  failure  of  these 
missions.  Had  the  easy  yoke  of  Christ,  with  its  light 
burden,  been  presented  to  the  Saxons  with  as  much 
earnestness  as  the  payment  of  tithes  and  legal  satisfac- 
tion for  small  faults,  the  Saxons  would  not  have  re- 
jected the  Sacrament  of  Baptism. 

Monarchs  were  more  influenced  by  a  desire 
for  extent  of  empire  than  from  a  desire  to  im- 
prove the  moral  condition  of  the  people.  Charle- 
magne was  a  wise  statesman.  He  knew  that  Chris- 
tians would  make  better  subjects  than  the  heathen, 
and   that   civilization    would   come   with    Christianity. 

*  Let  the  Christian  teachers  learn  from  the  Master  they  profess  to 
serve  and  from  /n's  apostles.  Let  them  be  preachers,  not  plunderers. — 
Alcuin. 


1 86  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

The  general  features  of  the  conversion  of  the  Northern 
races  were  somewhat  different  from  the  Christianizing 
of  the  civiHzed  world  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  gos- 
pel, when  first  preached,  spread  from  soul  to  soul,  and 
was  addressed  to  earnest  inquiring  minds,  who  grasped 
its  truths  to  direct  them  in  life  and  sustain  them  in 
death ;  but  Christianity  had  little  political  significance 
or  importance  until  the  age  of  Constantine. 

"When  the  missionaries  went  to  the  northern 
countries  of  Europe,  they  usually  addressed  themselves 
to  the  barbarous  chiefs,  kings  or  warriors.  These  laid 
the  subject  before  the  free  assemblies  of  the  people. 
There  were  no  powerful  pagan  hierarchies  to  dispossess, 
as  in  civilized  countries ;  no  proud  temples  to  destroy, 
as  at  Ephesus  or  in  Athens.  Sometimes  the  people 
agreed  by  thousands  to  fellow  the  example  of  their 
chief,  and  receive  the  new  religion  in  receiving  baptism. 
When  opposing  factions  arose,  preferring  the  Norse 
mythology  of  their  ancestors,  their  disputes  would  lead 
to  bloodshed.  Very  little  did  many  of  them  under- 
stand of  the  nature  or  power  of  godliness.  The  con- 
sciences of  few  of  them,  perhaps,  were  stirred  with 
the  question,  "What  must  we  do  to  be  saved?" 
Christianity  was  sometimes  extended  by  a  Christian 
royal  marriage  with  a  pagan  king. 

The  Queen  would  require  the  free  exercise  of  her  re- 
ligion, with  a  chapel  and  clergy  to  administer  the  ordi- 
nances of  her  religion.  The  histories  of  Clotilda, 
Bertha,  and  Ethelberga  will  recur  to  the  mind  in  this 
connection.  But  one  of  the  most  efficient  modes  was 
the  establishment  of  monasteries,  gradually  gathering 
colonies  of  people  around  them.  These  religious 
houses  in  early  times  were  not,  as  they  became  after- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1 87 

wards,  stately  homes  of  learned  leisure,  whose  riiins 
are  still  among  the  architectural  glories  of  the  land. 
No,  they  were  simple  dwellings,  built  by  the  monks. 
They  felled  the  trees,  erected  the  mill,  plowed  the 
ground.  An  industrious,  civilized  community,  on  the 
borders  of  a  heathen  land.  The  monasteries  to  which 
we  allude  numbered  their  inmates  by  hundreds,  and  in 
process  of  time  by  thousands.  A  few  of  these  w^ere 
the  teachers  and  governors.  The  Irish  monastery  at 
Bangor  numbered  4,000,  and  the  Fulda  in  Germany, 
at  the  death  of  its  founder,  number  as  many.  Some  of 
the  most  celebrated  missionaries  often  applied  to  the 
bishops  of  the  great  cities  for  a  sanction,  but  many 
went  forward  without  any  other  authorization  than  their 
love  for  the  souls  of  men.  The  oratory  often  grew 
into  a  church,  and  the  cell  into  a  religious  house. 
They  taught  the  heathen  by  voice  and  by  a  self-deny- 
ing life.  In  transactions  like  these  all  parties  were 
acting  honestly  for  Christ.  The  Teutonic  nations  were 
brought  under  Christian  influence  about  three  centuries 
before  the  Sclavonic  nations,  were  brought  into  the 
fold  of  Christ. 


l88       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

ICONOCLASM. 

In  570  the  Roman  Empire  was  broken  up.  The 
great  city  of  Rome,  the  "  Niobe  of  nations,"  sub- 
mitted to  Gothic  sway  for  about  the  space  of  fifty 
years.  The  feeble  Augustulus,  the  last  of  the  Emperors 
of  Italy,  yielded  to  the  superior  powers  of  Odoacer. 
He,  as  King^  of  Italy,  reigned  for  seventeen  years, 
and  was  not  unworthy  of  his  high  station.  He  had 
been  instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  Arian  Christianity, 
but  he  seems  to  have  revered  monastic  and  episcopal 
characters,  and  to  have  exercised  toleration  in  religion. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Theodoric,  the  great  king  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  who  vanguished  Odoacer  in  battle,  and  it 
is  supposed  he  had  him  assassinated.  Gibbon  describes 
Theodoric  as  a  great  hero  and  statesman.  His  latter 
days  were  full  of  remorse,  because  of  the  violent  deaths  of 
Boethius  and  Symmachus,  two  of  the  most  illustrious 
of  the  citizens  of  Rome.  Theodoric  reigned  thirty- 
three  years. 

Italy  then  became  subject  to  the  Exarchs  of  Ra- 
venna, who  were  appointed  by  Justinian,  Emperor  of 
Constantinople.  Rome,  the  former  "mistress  of 
the  world,"  was  now  governed  as  a  province.  The 
Greek  Empire,  though  despoiled  of  some  valuable 
provinces,  still  possessed  great  wealth.      Her  Emperors 


*  He  refused  to  be  called  Emperor  or  to  wear  the  Purple. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1 89 

lived  in  state  and  splendor,  their  palaces  were  lined  with 
porphyry  hung  with  purple,  and  filled  with  gold  and 
silver.  Narses  and  Belisarius  commanded  her  armies. 
But  suddenly,  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century, 
Rome  burst  the  bonds  that  connected  her  with  Con- 
stantinople, both  politically  and  ecclesiastically.  The 
immediate  cause  of  this  disruption  was  called  Icono- 
clasm. 

In  A.  D.  726  Leo,  the  Greek  Emperor,  commanded 
all  images  of  saints  to  be  removed  from  the  churches. 
The  image  of  Christ  was  alone  excepted.  Iconoclasm 
separates  Latin  from.  Greek  Christianity ! 

The  expressive  symbol  and  the  suggestive  picture 
of  the  fourth  century,  which  were  intended  to  instruct 
the  unlearned,  and  had  been  introduced  into  the 
churches,  simply  to  explain  passages  in  the  lives  and 
deaths  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  had  become  in  the 
later  centuries  a  snare  to  delude  the  souls  of  the  weak 
minded.  The  Emperor  Leo  was  opposed  in  this  meas- 
ure by  Gregory  IL,  Bishop  of  Rome.  A  dangerous 
conflict  ensued  in  Constantinople,  and  insurrections  in 
Italy.  It  is  probable  that  the  minds  of  the  Eastern 
Emperors,  and  especially  the  bishops  and  clergy,  were 
aroused  to  consider  the  subject  of  images  and  their 
dangerous  tendencies  from  surrounding  Mahometanism 
and  Judaism.  But  for  the  monks,  images  would  forever 
have  disappeared  from  the  East. 

"Iconoclasm  proscribed  idolatry,  but  it  could  not 
kindle  or  awaken  a  purer  faith.  There  was  in  this 
iconoclastic  strife  no  appeal  to  principles,  as  in  the 
Reformation,  to  justification  by  faith  and  to  the  indi- 
vidual sense   of  responsibility.  "^^*     It  must  be  remem- 

*  Milman. 


ipO  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

bered,  however,  that  the  history  of  this  movement 
comes  to  us  from  enemies.  Latin  historians  have  cast 
much  obloquy  on  the  names  of  the  two  Greek  Emper- 
ors, Leo  the  Isaurian  and  Constantine  Copronymus. 
Hatred  of  images  could  become  a  fanaticism,  but  it 
could  not  become  a  religion.  Some  said  that  in  the 
Greek  Empire  the  State  overshadowed  the  Church,  that 
the  Patriarch  was  a  puppet  in  the  hands  of  the  Em- 
peror. This  may  have  been  sometimes  the  case,  de- 
pending on  the  character  of  the  Emperor  or  priest,  but 
much  more  frequently  the  bishops  and  clergy  inflamed 
the  zeal  of  the  monarch. 

If  the  secular  arm  had  not  interfered  the  war 
against  Iconoclasm  would  have  been  more  short-lived 
and  more  effectual.  Leo,  the  first  Emperor  who  op- 
posed images,  was  doubtless  honest  and  right  in  his 
opposition.  He  had  been  fighting  against  Mahometans, 
and  their  taunts  of  idolatry  rankled  in  his  breast.  The 
restoration  of  images  was  twice  effected  by  women — by 
Irene,  the  widow  of  Leo,  and  afterwards  by  Theodora, 
the  widow  of  Theophilus.  The  conflict  lasted  between 
the  East  and  the  West  for  about  120  years.  The 
Greek  Church  then  declared  that  no  carved,  sculptured 
work,  ormolten  images  shouldbe  allowed  injtheir  churches. 
This  position  it  holds  to-day.  They  consented  that 
some  pictures  might  be  permitted  in  the  churches,  as 
they  were  not  images,  but  representations.  Those 
images  to  which  the  Greeks  objected  did  doubtless 
minister  to  superstition.  Men  prostrated  themselves 
before  them,  and  burned  incense  before  them.  They 
insisted  that  they  simply  honored  them,  but  did  not 
adore  them. 

It  was  argued  that  the  Jews,  to  whom  the  second 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       I9I 

commandment  was  given,  had  in  t/tei'r  temple  the  image 
of  the  Cherubim,  shadowing  the  mercy-seat.  Since 
the  Incarnation  they  further  argued  that  all  was 
changed.  "God  was  manifest  in  the  flesh."  The 
Church  of  Rome  was  unrelenting  in  her  opposition  to 
the  Iconoclasts.  The  wisest  words  on  this  subject, 
says  Milman,  are  embodied  in  the  books  called  the 
Caroline  books,  in  honor  of  Charlemagne.  They  are 
said  to  have  been  written  by  Alcuin,  the  Saxon  who 
resided  at  the  Court  of  Charles  the  Great. 

In  these  books,  there  is  distinct  condemnation 
of  all  religious  homage  to  images  —  a  vigorous  refu- 
tation of  all  arguments  that  could  justify  such  honor  or 
homage.  At  the  same  time  the  image-breakers  are 
reproved  for  not  distinguishing  between  these  sacred 
representations  and  the  false  idols  of  the  heathen. 
Man  is  not  all  soul ;  he  may,  therefore,  use  sensuous 
helps,  such  as  the  paintings  of  the  Savior  and  his 
apostles.  It  was  declared  that  no  one  should  kneel  to 
any  image,  picture  or  statue.  These  decrees  were 
published  fully  and  specifically  in  the  famous  Caroline 
Books.  Yet  Charlemagne  was  not  an  Iconoclast.  He 
wished  some  pictures  to  be  retained  in^the  churches  as 
ornaments  and  reminders  of  the  pious  men  who  had 
performed  pious  deeds. 

It  was  at  a  council  in  Frankfort,  in  797,  when 
Charlemagne  presided,  and  at  which  a  large  number  of 
the  clergy  of  different  grades  were  present,  that  the  declar- 
ations made  in  the  Caroline  Books  were  proclaimed  to  the 
assembly.  The  learned  Alcuin  was  present.  This 
was  a  noble  protest  against  the  abuse  of  images,  but  it 
can  not  be  determined  how  much  good  was  effected  by 
them. 


192  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Pepin,  the  father  of  Charles  the  Great,  had,  with 
the  sanction  of  Pope  Zacharias,  dispossessed  the  last  of 
the  Merovingian  kings  of  his  throne  and  crown.  Some 
years  afterwards,  when  Desederius,  King  of  the  Lom- 
bards, invaded  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter — i.  e.,  the 
lands  given  by  Pepin  to  the  Pope,  who  sanctioned  his 
usurpation,  Hadrian  I.,  who  was  then  pontiff,  had  re- 
course to  Charles  the  Great,  the  son  of  Pepin. 

In  the  year  774  Charlemagne  crossed  the  Alps  with 
a  large  army.  He  overturned  the  kingdom  of  the 
Lombards,  which  had  held  dominion  in  Northern  Italy 
for  two  centuries.  He  increased  the  donations  that 
Pepin  had  made,  giving  to  Hadrian  cities  and  provinces 
not  included  in  the  grant  of  Pepin.  In  this  manner 
was  the  Bishop  of  Rome  made  a  temporary  king.'^ 
Our  Lord's  solemn  prohibition,  with  regard  to  worldly 
titles  and  honors,  was  no  longer  remembered.  "It 
shall  not  be  so  among  you." 

During  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  many  bar- 
barous nations  had  entered  the  Christian  Church. 
When  they  assumed  the  name  of  Christians,  they 
transferred  the  high  prerogatives  of  their  ancient  priests 
to  the  bishops  and  ministers  of  the  new  religion. 
Hence  originated,  says  Mosheim,  the  monstrous  au- 
thority of  the  priesthood  in  the  European  churches. 
Their  dependence  on  their  former  priests  and  their  rev- 


*"The  Holy  See  was  invoked  for  \\^&  first  time  by  Pepin  as  an 
international  power.  The  Pope  assumed  to  depose  Childeric,  and  gave 
to  the  royal  office  oT  his  successor  a  sanctity  hitherto  unknown.  He 
gave  to  Pepin  the  Hebrew  rite  of  anointing  and  the  Roman  diadem. 
Before  this  time  a  Prankish  election  consisted  in  raising  the  chief  on  a 
shield  amid  the  clash  of  arms.  Pepin  twice  rescued  the  Pope  and 
Rome  from  the  Lombards. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  1 93 

erence  for  them,  had  doubtless  its  influence  upon  their 
views  of  the  priestly  office,  but  had  the  Christian  pre- 
lates done  their  duty,  the  result  would  have  been  very 
different.  During  this  period  immense  wealth  and 
riches  were  conferred  upon  the  church.  "An  idea 
somehow  became  prevalent  at  this  time  that  punish- 
ment for  sin  may  be  bought  off  or  cancelled  by  gifts  to 
the  churches,  to  the  temples  and  to  the  ministers  of 
God." 

This  was  the  principal  source  of  these  treasures 
which,  from  this  century  (the  eighth)  onward  flowed  in 
upon  the  clergy,  churches  and  monasteries.  Those 
persons  whose  duty  it  was  to  teach  their  flocks  humil- 
ity and  indifference  to  worldly  things,  now  became 
sovereign  Lords,  Dukes,  Counts,  and  some  of  them 
placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  armies.  This  ag- 
grandizement commenced  with  their  head,  the  Roman 
Pontiff  Charlemagne  made  splendid  offerings  on  the 
altar  of  St.  Peter. 

Charles  coming  to  Rome  in  the  year  800,  the  Pon- 
tiff Leo  in.  persuaded  the  Roman  people,  who  were 
supposed  to  be  free,  and  to  have  the  right  of  choosing 
an  Emperor,  to  proclaim  him  *  Emperor  of  the 
West.  The  Pope  put  the  crown  on  the  head  of  the 
Monarch  while  he  was  kneeling  at  the  altar.  He 
affected  surprise.  Leo  IIL  was  one  of  the  most  mu- 
nificent and  splendid  of  the  bishops  of  Rome.  His 
wealth  was  great  in  consequence  of  the  gifts  of  the 
Emperor.  Buildings  in  Rome  were  lined  with  marble 
and  mosaic.  There  were  priestly  robes  of  silk  and 
embroidery,  set  with  precious  stones.  Vessels  of  gold 
and  columns  of  silver  were  seen.     Leo  HL   also  ob- 

*  Charlemagne. 


194  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

tained  money  from  heavy  exactions  levied  upon  the 
people.  While  he  was  enriching  the  churches  and 
palaces  of  Rome,  his  own  life  was  endangered  by  a 
popular  insurrection. 

Paschal,  the  successor  of  Leo  III.,  was  accused  of 
being  accessory  to  a  great  crime  committed  against 
two  distinguished  men.  Paschal  refused  to  give  up 
the  murderers.  He  was  called  before  thirty  bishops  to 
answer  for  the  imputed  crime.  He  took  a  great  oath, 
declaring  his  innocence.  In  a  few  days  after  he  was 
called  before  a  higher  tribunal.  He  died  !  His  death 
excited  a  fierce  contention  in  cisalpine  and  transalpine 
regions. 

The  patricians  and  nobles  of  Rome  call  upon  Lo- 
thair,  the  grandson  of  Charlemagne,  to  settle  the  diffi- 
culty. Lothair  issued  his  mandates,  but  they  were  of 
little  avail.  He  went  to  Rome  in  person,  and  finding 
that  many  of  the  estates  of  the  Roman  nobles  had  been 
confiscated  in  consequence  of  the  indolence  and  avarice 
of  the  Popes,  he  used  his  power  as  Emperor  of  the 
West,  and  compelled  a  restitution  of  the  property  to 
the  rightful  owners. 

In  824,  Claudius,  of  Turin,  lived.  He  was  a 
bishop  of  blameless  life,  and  his  scriptural  doctrines 
were  a  return  to  primitive  Christianity,  or  in  anticipa- 
tion of  the  reformation  of  later  times.  The  apostolic 
office,  Claudius  taught,  ceased  with  St.  Peter.  The 
power  of  the  keys,  he  believed,  passed  equally  to  the 
whole  Episcopal  order.  Some  of  the  successors  of 
Claudius'  opinions  lay  concealed  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Alps,  to  appear  again  under  the  name  of  Waldenses. 
He  removed  from  all  the  churches  of  his  diocese  the 
images  that  adorned  them.     He  was  unrebuked,  though 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  I95 

he  lived  in  the  heart  of  Italy.  Monastic  discipline  was 
almost  prostrate  in  this  century.  Most  of  the  West- 
ern monks  still  followed  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  but 
there  was  little  discipline  or  vitality  among  them,  until 
other  orders  arose.  Supreme  power  over  the  whole 
sacred  order  was,  both  in  the  East  and  West,  vested 
in  the  emperors  and  kings.  This  power  in  the  East 
was  undeniable,  but  in  the  West  the  flatterers  of  the 
popes  have  labored  to  conceal  the  fact. 

Hadrian  I.,  in  a  council  at  Rome,  conferred  on 
Charlemagne  and  his  successors  the  right  of  appoint- 
ing the  Roman  pontiffs.  Charles  and  his  son  Louis 
declined  the  exercise  of  this  power,  but  they  reserved 
to  themselves  the  power  of  accepting  and  confirming 
the  election  made  by  the  Roman  clergy  and  people. 
The  emperors  of  the  Franks,  by  their  judges  called 
Legates,  inquired  into  the  lives  of  the  clergy. 

There  were  not  many  famous  writers  in  the  eighth 
century,  either  in  the  East  or  West.  Bede  and  Alcuin 
belong  to  the  early  part  of  this  century.  The  former 
died  in  755.  Charlemagne  was  a  great  promoter  of 
learning.  He  employed  amanuenses,  who  composed 
and  compiled  a  great  deal  under  his  dictation.  The 
four  Caroline  Books  against  image-worship  were  drawn 
up  under  his  direction  and  in  accordance  with  his  views. 

Eginhard  wrote  the  biography  of  Charlemagne. 
Several  of  the  popes  of  this  century  left  epistles.  The 
fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith  were  yet 
preserved,  both  by  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers.  This 
is  certain  from  the  writings  of  Damaxenus  and  others  of 
this  age.  But  to  the  pure  seed  of  the  word  were  added 
many  tares.  The  efficacy  of  the  merits  of  the  Savior 
were  acknowledged,  and  yet   it    was    maintained  that 


196  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

man  could  appease  God   by  gifts  and  offerings,  and  un- 
dergoing voluntary  punishment. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  riches  and  treasures  of  the 
Roman  Church,  yet  during  the  controversy  about  image, 
worship,  the  Greeks  deprived  them  (the  Romans)  of  some 
valuable  possessions  in  Calabria,  and  Sicily,  and  Apulia, 
and  exempted  the  bishops  of  these  districts  from  the  do- 
minion of  the  Roman  Pontiffs,  together  with  the  provinces 
of  Illyricum,  and  placed  them  under  the  control  of  the 
Bishop  or  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  The  power  of 
the  Pontiff  at  this  time  was  confined  within  narrow 
limits.  He  could  not  decide  by  his  sole  authority,  but 
was  obliged  to  call  a  council.  With  the  contests  re- 
specting images  sprung  up  another  controversy  respect- 
ing the  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  Latins 
contended  that  the  Spirit  proceeded  from  the  Father 
and  the  Son.  The  Greeks  that  the  Holy  Spirit  pro- 
ceeded only  from  the  Father.  The  Greeks  charged 
the    Latins  with  changing  the   creed    of    the    church. 

It  has  been  alleged  that  Hosius,  Bishop  of  Cordova, 
in  Spain,  added  the  x^ordfiliogtie  (from  the  Son),  about 
the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  Nicene  Creed  by  the 
Council  at  Nice. 

As  an  evidence  of  the  increase  of  superstition  in 
the  eighth  century,  it  is  related  of  Gregory  HL  that 
he  required  severe  penances  of  all  those  who  should, 
through  negligence,  injure  or  destroy  the  Eucharist. 

It  has  been  asked  by  theologians,  Was  it  providence, 
or  permission,  or  patience,  that  the  dominion  called 
the  Papacy  grew  up  in  the  church  ?  This  is  a  perplex- 
ing question.  The  Papacy  was  certainly  permitted  for 
a  few  centuries  to  exercise  much  power.  Perhaps,  in 
dark  ages,  in  the  time  of  tyrannical  misrule,   a  great 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  I97 

central  power  in  the  church  averted  much  evil.  Sev- 
eral of  the  popes  did  exert  themselves  to  prevent  the 
wicked  divorces  of  kings,  and  took  part  with  the  op- 
pressed when  civil  law  was  powerless. 


198  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

Gregory  I.,  in  570,  as  we  have  already  said,  had  ad- 
vised Augustine  and  other  missionaries  to  consult  pru- 
dence in  the  arrangement  of  liturgies,  and  to  permit 
the  Christians  of  Britain  (for  instance)  to  use  their  own 
ancient  form,  if  it  did  not  sacrifice  the  essentials  of 
religion. 

But  in  the  time  of  Gregory  VII. ,  1073,  strict  conform- 
ity was  required  in  the  liturgies.  The  Spaniards  were 
for  a  long  time  obdurate,  preferring  their  Gothic  liturgy 
to  the  Roman  form. 

There  were  doubtless  some  in  every  country  of 
Europe  who  received  the  precious  seed  of  the  gospel 
into  honest  hearts  in  this  century  as  in  the  succeeding 
centuries ;  but  the  prevailing  tone  of  the  visible  church 
in  these  middle  ages  seemed  greatly  to  consist  in 
founding,  enriching  and  embellishing  churches  and 
chapels,  and  in  hunting  up  and  venerating  the  relics  of 
holy  men,  and  in  making  pilgrimages  to  the  holy  places, 
especially  Palestine.  Ignorance  of  the  word  of  God 
was  very  general,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West. 
The  true  religion  of  Jesus  Christ,  if  we  except  the 
doctrines  contained  in  the  Creed,  was  but  little  under- 
stood or  felt  at  this  time.  Charlemagne's  reverence  for 
the  sacred  volume  was  very  great.  He  made  many 
efforts  to  excite  the  clergy  to  a  more  diligent  investiga- 
tion of  the  sacred  books.  He  employed  Alcuin  in  re- 
vising the  Latin  translations ;  indeed,  he  himself  spent 
a  portion  of  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  correcting  the 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       1 99 

errors  that  had  crept  in.  It  has  been  said  that  he  pro- 
cured a  translation  of  the  sacred  books  into  German ; 
but  others  attribute  this  translation  to  his  son  Lewis 
the  Pious.  Knowing  that  few  of  the  clergy  were  com- 
petent to  explain  well  the  gospels  and  epistles,  as  les- 
sons used  in  public  worship  were  called,  he  directed 
Diaconus  and  Alcuin,  two  of  the  learned  and  pious 
men  of  his  court,,  to  collect  from  the  Fathers  hotnilies 
or  discourses  on  these  lessons,  that  the  ignorant  teach- 
ers might  recite  them  to  the  people.*  The  lives  of 
eminent  saints,  by  his  direction,  were  collected  into  a 
volume,  so  that  the  people  might  have  among  them 
the  dead  examples  worthy  of  imitation,  while  they  had 
so  few  among  the  living. 

So  long  as  Charlemagne  lived,  which  was  until  the 
year  814,  missions  were  established  among  the  Huns, 
the  Saxons,  and  others.  His  son  Lewis  had  the  same 
zeal  in  propagating  Christianity,  but  he  was  greatly  his  in- 
ferior in  other  respects.  Two  preachers  of  Christianity 
were  sent  under  his  patronage,  in  828,  to  Jutland  and  to 
Sweden.  Ansgarius,  one  of  these  two  missionaries, 
was  very  zealous  and  successful.  Returning  to  Ger- 
many in  831,  he  was  made,  by  the  influence  of  Lewis, 
Archbishop  of  Hamburg,  a  new  see,  to  which  Bremen 
was  added.  There  were  more  labors  and  perils  in  this 
high  position  than  pecuniary  profit.  Ansgarius  con- 
tinued to  visit  the  Danes,  Cimbrians,  and  Swedes  after 
his  advancement,  though  sometimes  at  the  peril  of  his 
life. 

Christian  captives,  who  had  been  carried  by  the 
Normans  in  their  plundering  expeditions  into  Sweden 

*  A  chapter  in  the  Old  Testament  and  a  chapter  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  still  called  first  and  second  lessons. 


200       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

and  other  countries,  had  given  these  people  a  favorable 
idea  of  Christianity.  About  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century  two  Greek  monks  —  Methodius  and  Cyril — 
were  sent  from  Constantinople  by  the  Empress  Theo- 
dora to  the  Mesians  and  Bulgarians,  and  aftewards  to 
the  Bohemians  and  Moravians.  The  Teutonic  nations 
had  been  gradually  yielding  to  the  influences  of  Chris- 
tianity for  three  centuries  before  the  Sclavonic  nations. 
The  Bulgarians,  Moravians,  Bohemians, and  Poles,  inhab- 
ited both  sides  of  the  Danube. 

When  Theodora  TI,  in  the  ninth  century,  was  Empress 
of  the  Greek  Empire,  Bogoris,  a  prince  of  Bulgaria, 
was  taken  as  a  captive  to  Constantinople.  He  em- 
braced Christianity.  When  Bulgaria  adopted  the  re- 
ligion of  Christ,  Nicholas,  Pope  of  Rome,  claimed  the 
country  and  its  converts,  because  it  was  within  the  limits 
of  the  Western  Empire,  the  Patriarch  Photius  claimed 
that  Bulgaria  belonged  to  the  Greek  Church,  because 
Greek  Christians  had  introduced  Christianity  among 
them.  The  Greek  monks — Methodius  and  Cyril — 
translated  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts  into  their  own 
tongue.  The  Pope  Adrian,  hearing  of  their  work 
among  the  Moravians  and  Bulgarians,  summoned  them 
to  Rome.  The  Pope,  after  some  hesitancy,  approved 
the  translation  of  the  Greek  bishops. 

When  Moravia  was  invaded  by  the  pagan  Magyars, 
it  was  united  to  Bohemia,  and  ceased  to  be  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom.  Bohemia  and  Poland  both  received 
the  knowledge  of  Christ  from  Moravia.  The  great 
achievement  of  the  Byzantine  Church  was  the  conver- 
sion of  Russia. 

Ruric,  the  leader  of  Scandinavian  bands,  had  estab- 
lished a  capital  called  Novgorod  as  early  as  809.     In 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       201 

955  the  Russian  Empress  Olga  visited  Constantinople. 
She  then  made  a  profession  of  Christianity  in  baptism. 
The  Emperor  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  was  her 
sponsor.  Some  years  after  a  Russian  Prince,  the 
grandson  of  Olga,  married  a  sister  of  the  Emperor 
Basil.  The  condition  required  was,  that  this  Prince 
should  accept  Christianity.  The  grandeur  of  the  serv- 
ice in  St.  Sophia  greatly  impressed  the  Russians.  It 
was,  however,  many  years  before  Christianity  gained 
much  ascendency  over  the  old  Sclavonic  religion.  In- 
nocent III  ,  imitating  the  spirit  of  Mahomet  rather 
than  the  master  he  professed  to  serve,  dii'ected  a  crusade 
at  the  sword's  point  against  the  heathen  of  the  North- 
east of  Europe.  It  was  this  Pope  who  permitted  and 
stimulated  the  fanaticahDe  Montfort  in  a  crusade  against 
the  Albigenses  in  the  South  of  France. 

We  have  anticipated  the  march  of  events  in  speak- 
ing of  the  Albigenses  in  the  last  chapter.  The  Albi- 
genses were  said  to  be  the  remnant  of  a  sect  who  had 
sprung  up  in  the  seventh  century  in  the  Eastern  church. 
They  were  at  first  called  Paulicians,  from  the  great  im- 
portance they  attached  to  the  writings  of  St.  Paul. 
Yet  this  can  scarcely  be  the  true  origin  of  the  name, 
inasmuch  as  they  were  Gnostics  in  doctrine  and  more 
or  less  imbued  with  Manicheism.  They  protested 
strongly  against  the  ceremonial  character  of  the  ruling 
church.  They  rejected  baptism  by  water,  but  believed 
in  spiritual  baptism.  The  Albigenses,  or  some  of 
them  at  least,  agreed  with  the  ancient  Gnostics  in  hold- 
ing to  the  Persian  dualism,  and  in  the  opinion  that  the 
God  of  the  Old  Testament  was  an  evil  being.  Upon 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  there  was  substantial  unity 

*  The  Albigenses. 


202  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

of  faith.  It  is  quite  certain  that  their  doctrines  were 
not  well  understood  by  their  enemies,  or  if  understood, 
they  were  greatly  maligned.  Some  of  them  were  mys- 
tics and  ascetics.  We  find  them  in  970  in  great  num- 
bers in  Bulgaria.  They  extended  their  doctrines  by 
successive  migrations  in  Southern  and  Western  Europe. 
They  became  very  celebrated  in  the  countries  of  Pro- 
vence and  Languedoc,  in  Southern  France.  Among 
them  were  men  of  learning,  rank  and  substance,  with 
great  zeal  for  their  faith. 

Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  almost  an  independ- 
ent sovereign,  of  the  most  prosperous  and  civilized 
country  in  Europe  refused  to  persecute  his  non-Catholic 
subjects.  Pope  Innocent  III.  then  proclaimed  a  cru- 
sade against  Raymond  VI.  The  war  raged  from  1208 
to  1229.  Everywhere  fertile  fields  were  laid  waste, 
town  and  villages  depopulated.  The  Albigenses  had 
among  them  many  enterprising,  zealous  preachers,  who 
traveled  over  their  land  exciting  their  people  to  stead- 
fastness. Four  councils  were  called  by  the  Roman  See 
— in  1 165,  1 1 76,  1 1 78  and  11 79,  which  successively 
denounced  them  as  heretics.  The  war  continued 
through  the  short  reign  of  Louis  VIII.;  was  ended 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  IX.  This  war  commenced 
by  Philip  Augustus ;  was,  so  far  as  that  king  was  con- 
cerned, more  a  political  than  a'^  religious  movement. 
The  estates  of  Toulouse  were  chiefly  annexed  to  the 
crown,  and  in  this  way  France  gained  the  control  of 
Mediterranean  ports.  The  most  active  crusader  against 
the  Albigenses  was  De  Montfort,  the  father  of  that  De 
Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  who  led  the  English  barons 
in  their  opposition  to  Henry  III. 

The  separation  of  France  and  England  was  made 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  203 

complete  by  a  law  of  Louis  IX.,  forbidding  any  vassal 
of  his  to  hold  estates  under  another  crown,     a.  d.  1244. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  decline  of  monasticism  in 
the  previous  centuries,  but  now,  in  the  midst  of  Albi- 
gensianism,  arose  two  famous  orders.  These  were  the 
Dominicans  and  the  Franciscans.  Dominic  was  born 
in  1 1 70,  in  Old  Castile.  He  could  not  close  his  eyes 
to  the  contempt  in  which  the  clergy  had  fallen.  It  is 
said  of  him  that  when  he  met  three  legates  of  Innocent 
III,  returning  after  a  defeat  by  the  Albigenses  in  Lang- 
nedoc,  that  he  uttered  to  them  a  bold  rebuke.  "It 
is  not  by  pomp  or  display  that  you  can  impress  these 
people,  the  heretics ;  win  proselytes  by  zealous  preach- 
ing, apostolic  humility  and  seeming  holiness."  Since 
the  time  of  the  crusades  preaching  had  been  greatly 
neglected  by  the  regular  clergy.  Now  the  Friar 
preachers  arose  under  Dominic  and  St.  Francis. 
Preaching  had  been  the  great  forte  among  the  heresi- 
archs.  The  Jiew  orders  saw  the  necessity  that  these 
great  orators  should  be  answered,  whether  among  the 
Albigenses  or  among  "the  poor  men  of  Lyons,"  or 
the  disciples  of  Arnold  of  Brescia.  Dominic  sought 
earnest  men  from  every  land  and  of  every  tongue,  and 
overspread  the  land  with  active,  devoted  men,  whose 
function  was  popular  instruction. 

St.  Francis,  of  Assisi,  was  full  of  mystic  devotion. 
He  renounced  riches  both  for  himself  and  for  his  order. 
All  the  priests  of  his  order  must  live  upon  alms.  They 
must  be  begging  Friars  ! 

It  seemed  to  be  the  ambition  of  the  Dominicans  to 
make  the  world  one  vast  cloister — not  to  immure  them- 
selves in  convents,  not  to  flee  from  the  world,  as  some 
of  the  early  monks   had   done,    but  to  subjugate  the 


204  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

world.  Dominic  exercised  in  Spain  the  peculiar  relig- 
ious character,  which  afterwards  culminated  in  Loyola, 
the  founder  of  the  Jesuits,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
When  Dominic  and  his  Friar  preachers  commenced 
work  at  Rome,  they  were  at  first  received  with  cold 
suspicion.  But  in  1220,  seven  years  after  he  left  Langue- 
doc,  he  had  become  Master  General  of  his  Order 
Whenever  a  Dominican  ascended  the  pulpit  a  large 
number  of  disciples  and  votaries  crowded  the  churches. 
Monasteries  of  their  order,  for  men  and  women,  were 
established  in  all  the  principal  places.  But,  alas,  dur- 
ing the  dreadful  persecution  of  the  heretics  in  South- 
ern France,  the  voice  of  Saint  Dominic,  lifted  in 
love  or  pity,  was  not  heard.  Throughout  the  crusade 
Dominic  was  not  mentioned  by  either  historian  or  poet. 
Whether  he  ever  expreased  horror  or  approbation  at 
the  cruelties  of  Simon  De  Monfort  does  not  appear. 
His  title  of  founder  of  the  Inquisition,*  says  Milman, 
belongs  not  to  history,  but  to  legend.  He  was  born 
in  Old  Castile  in   11 70,  of  wealthy  parentage. 

St.  Francis  was  an  Italian.  He  was  in  early  youth 
gay  and  full  of  revelry,  but  some  adverse  circumstance 
led  him  to  view  this  world  through  a  different  medium. 
His  future  bride  was  poverty.  He  founded  the  order 
of  Mendicant  Friars.  The  strange,  fervent  piety  of 
Francis  kindled  the  zeal  of  many.  Innocent  III.  re- 
ceived St.  Francis  after  some  deliberation,  saying  that 
the  poor  men  of  the  church  must  outdo  and  outwork 
the  "poor  man  of  Lyons."  How  wise  was  the  policy 
of  Innocent  III. 

Thus  we  see  that  all  down  the  ages  new  forms  of 
monasticism  arose,   vitalizing  the  church  in   imparting 

*  Dominic's  title. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  205 

energy  and  zeal  to  the  people.  There  was  evil  mingled 
with  the  good,  but  it  was  life.  These  orders  for  a 
time,  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  cast  into  ob- 
scurity the  Benedictines,  the  Clugnians  and  the  Cister- 
cians. "The  cradle  of  the  first  great  organization  of 
this  kind,  a.  d.  528,  had  benefited  the  world  by  their 
care  and  preservation  of  the  treasures  of  ancient  liter- 
ature, and  by  their  compilation  of  great  historical 
works." 

The  Order  of  the  Carthusians  was  instituted  in 
1048.  The  Monastery  of  Citeaux  became  the  founder 
of  3600  convents  of  the  Cistercian  Order.  The  Car- 
melites founded  in  Palestine,  migrated  to  Europe  in 
1238,  assuming  the  rule  and  name  of  St.  Augustine.* 

The  Crusades  gave  rise  to  several  military  orders 
of  monks.  The  Knights  of  St.  John  originated  in 
Jerusalem,  and  derived  their  name  from  a  hospital  in 
the  sacred  city,  dedicated  to  John  the  Baptist.  They 
extended  relief  to  the  sick  and  needy  of  Jerusalem. 
They  afterwards  became  military  characters,  and  were 
divided  into  three  classess :  Knights  of  noble  birth, 
whose  business  it  was  to  fight  for  religion,  priests  who 
conducted  the  religious  services  of  the  order,  and  sejv- 
ing  brethren,  soldiers  of  ignoble  birth.  After  the  loss 
of  Palestine,  the  Knights  of  St.  John  passed  into  the 
island  of  Cyprus ;  afterwards  they  occupied  for  a  long 
time  the  Island  of  Rhodes,  until  expelled  by  the  Turks. 
Malta  then  became  their  possession,  obtained  by  them 
from  Charles  V.  In  1798  these  Knights  of  Malta  be- 
trayed to  the  French  fleet  this  island,  who  were  then 
carrying  Bonaparte  to  Egypt.     The  English  then  block- 


Thalheimer's  Medieval  History. 


206       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

aded  the  island  for  two  years  ;  they  took  it  and  still 
hold  it. 

The  Templars,  as  an  order,  derived  their  name  from 
their  residence  near  the  site  of  Solomon's  Temple. 
They  were  required,  too,  to  defend  the  temples  of  relg- 
ion  or  religious  houses,  to  defend  the  highways,  and 
protect  pilgrims  journeying  to  Palestine.  They  began 
at  Jerusalem  in  a.  d.  1128.*  By  their  valor  and  fame 
they  gained  vast  wealth,  which  afterwards  excited  jeal- 
ousy and  cupidity  in  some  of  the  monarchs  of  Europe. 
This  order  was  suppressed  by  the  Pope.  They  were 
accused  of  heresies  and  crimes.  De  Molai,  the  Grand 
Master,  was  burned  at  the  stake.  He  died  protesting 
his  innocence. 

The  third  military  order  were  called  Teutonic 
Knights.  Frederick  Barbarossa  raised  them  to  an  or- 
der of  knights.  When  they  returned  from  Palestine 
they  became  missionaries  to  the  Prussians.  They  in- 
troduced Christianity  into  Prussia.  When  Dominic 
and  Francis  became  the  institutors  of  the  Mendicant 
orders,  they  protested  against  the  wealth  and  luxury  of 
the  monks.  About  this  time  Peter  Waldo,  a  rich  man 
of  Lyons,  sold  his  possessions,  devoting  his  money  to 
pious  uses.  His  disciples  were  called  the  "Poor  Men 
of  Lyons."  It  was  to  these  persons  that  Innocent  III. 
alluded  when  he  received  St.  Francis.  When  Waldo 
applied  to  the  church  for  countenance,  he  was  refused. 
St.  Francis  remained  steadfast  to  his  vows  of  poverty, 
but  many  of  his  followers  wished  to  be  divorced  from 
them.     Bonaventura,    fifty    years    after   the    death   of 

*The  Templars.  This  order  was  incorporated  by  Honorius  II.,  un- 
der the  direction  of  St.  Bernard  in  1128.  It  was  suppressed  by  Clem* 
ent  V.  under  the  influence  of  the  wicked  Philip  the  Fair,  13 12. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  20/ 

Francis,  said  that  a  begging  Friar  was  dreaded  like  a 
robber. 

The  Institution  of  Chivalry  arose  between  the  time 
of  Charlemagne  and  the  Crusades.  This  was  a  strange 
growth  for  those  rude  times.  It  produced  flowers  of 
courtesy,  truth  and  honor,  and  developed  many  brave 
and  gallant  deeds.  This  institution,  so  far  as  it  ex- 
tended, must  have  ameliorated  the  evils  of  the  time. 
Like  every  human  device,  it  was  not  always  competent 
to  grapple  with  fierce  passion  when  interest  clashed 
with  fidelity  to  their  vows,  their  knighthood  some- 
times trailed  in  the  dust.  Chivalry  had  great  sway 
in  France.  Mr.  Green,  the  English  historian,  speaks 
of  Chivalry  in  France  "  as  a  picturesque  mimicry  of 
high  sentiment,  before  which  all  depth  and  reality  dis- 
appeared, to  give  place  to  a  narrow  caste  spirit  and  a 
brutal  indifference  to  human  suffering.  The  word,  as 
it  survives  among  us  at  this  day,  is  certainly  associated 
with  beautiful,  manly  qualities.  We  can  not  but  think 
that  this  historian's  picture  is  unfair,  though  there  was 
sometimes  affectation  and  exaggeration  mingled  w^ith 
their  actions.  In  the  fourteenth  century  English  and 
French  knights  united  to  quell  an  insurrection,  known 
as  La  Jaquerie,  which  threatened  to  destroy  the 
castles,  and  which  involved  the  lives  and  safety  of 
several  noble  ladies.  It  is  true  that  war  and 
tyranny  had  reduced  these  poor  insurgents  to  a 
deplorable  state,  but  chivalry  was  not  to  blame 
for  that.  All  classes  were  not  directly  benefited 
by  it.  The  time  had  not  come,  except  in  the  New 
Testament,  when  the  rights  of  the  poor  and  lowly  were 
fully  recognized  ;  but  chivalry  was  an  advance  in  the 
right  direction.      It  was  generally  the  protector  of  the 


208  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

weak   and    defenseless.      The    humanities    of   chivalry 
were  sanctioned  by  legal  and  ecclesiastical  power. 

The  Council  of  Clermont,  1085,  which  authorized 
the  first  crusade,  required  that  every  nobleman's  son, 
at  the  age  of  twelve  years,  should  take  an  oath*  be- 
fore the  bishop  of  his  diocese  to  defend  the  oppressed, 
that  women  of  noble  birth  should  have  his  special  care  ; 
that  traveling  must  be  made  secure,  and  that  the  evils 
of  tyranny  be  destroyed.  The  connection  between 
the  church  and  chivalry  was  very  close.  The  Tourna- 
ment ultimately  was  opposed  by  the  church,  because 
they  objected  to  the  expense,  and  sometimes  lives  were 
lost.  But  these  brilliant  festivals  must  have  imparted 
much  zest  and  coloring  to  the  otherwise  monotonous  lives 
of  the  nobility  of  the  middle  ages.  Gibbon  acknowl- 
edges the  benefits  of  this  institution  to  refine  the  tem- 
per of  barbarians,  and  its  power  to  infuse  some  princi- 
ples of  justice  and  humanity  were  strongly  felt  and 
observed.  "Impartial  taste,"  says  he,  "must  pre- 
fer a  Gothic  Tournament  to  the  Olympic  games  of 
classic  antiquity."  Romances  of  a  highly  moral  and 
heroic  kind  appeared  in  these  times,  full  of  incredible 
adventures,  yet  the  knights  were  patterns,  not  of  cour- 
age merely,  but  of  the  higher  virtues.  They  were  no 
less  distinguished  for  modesty,  delicacy  and  dignity  of 
manners. 

•The  requirements  of  a  knight  when  he  was  instituted  seemed  to 
cover  the  sum  of  human  duty.  The  union  of  these  English  and 
French  knights  in  the  cause  of  humanity  prove  that  there  was  among 
them  an  esprit  de  corps. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  20g 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


DUNSTAN. 


We  will  now  speak  of  a  famous  monk  of  the  tenth 
century.  Dunstan  was  the  most  remarkable  man  of 
his  time.  '  *  He  was  the  first  in  a  line  of  ecclesiastical 
statesmen,"  says  Mr.  Green,  "who  counted  among 
them  Lanfranc  and  VVolsey,  and  ended  in  Laud."  He 
was  abbot  of  Glastonbury,  bishop  of  London,  and 
afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  managed 
with  a  master's  hand  some  of  the  rude  kings  of  Saxon- 
England.  He  was  energetic  and  arbitrary.  He  was  a 
student  of  books,  of  music  and  painting.  He  built  a 
cell  against  the  walls  of  Glastonbury  cathedral ;  here  he 
passed  much  of  his  time,  the  people  thought  in  fasting 
and  prayer. 

Many  legendary  stories  are  told  of  him.  He  en- 
graved and  illuminated  books  with  the  most  exquisite 
designs.  He  wrought  curious  patterns  in  gold  and 
silver,  and  fashioned  utensils  of  silver  for  the  use  of  the 
altar.  He  so  won  the  love  and  confidence  of  Athelstan, 
by  his  wisdom  in  state  affairs,  by  his  music  and  other 
accomplishments,  that  it  stirred  the  jealousy  of  the 
courtiers.  These  accused  Dunstan  of  magical  arts,  and 
so  strong  was  the  testimony  against  him  in  this  super- 
stitious age,  that  he  was  banished  from  the  court  of  his 
king.      He  was  soon  recalled. 

One  act  of  cruelty  is  ascribed  to  him.  When  Edwin 
wished   to   marry  his  cousin  Elgira,  Dunstan,  who  re- 


2IO      ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

garded  it  as  an  uncanonized  marriage,  sent  an  emissary 
when  she  was  traveling  to  brand  her  face  with  red-hot 
iron.  This  is  doubtless  a  fiction  invented  by  his 
enemies. 

Dunstan  introduced  the  Benedictines  into  England. 
He  imposed  a  penance  of  seven  years  on  Edgar,  the 
Saxon  king,  for  his  licentiousness.  On  the  accession  of 
the  wicked  Ethelred,  finding  that  his  discipline  was 
unheeded,  he  retired  to  Canterbury,  and  died  full  of 
mortification. 

Otho  III,  in  963,  the  emperor  of  Germany,  sought 
to  raise  the  character  of  the  Roman'  bishops.  The 
papacy  for  sixty  years  previous  had  been  degraded 
through  the  influence  of  two  Roman  women  of  rank 
and  wealth,  but  unprincipled  in  morals.  They  had  so 
controlled  Roman  affairs  as  to  dispose  of  the  papal 
crown.  The  efforts  of  the  young  emperor,  however,  to 
elevate  the  papacy  were  not  successful.  He  died  in  the 
dawn  of  manhood.  Two  antipopes  disputed  the  title 
of  Gregory  VI.,  bringing  the  papacy  by  their  un- 
righteous dealing  to  the  lowest  point  of  degradation. 
Henry  III.  then  inheriting  the  empire  of  Otho,  deposed 
the  favorites  of  the  two  women  to  whom  we  have 
alluded,  and  appointed  Clement  II.  A  succession  of 
several  German  popes  revived  the  credit  of  the 
Roman  See. 

During  the  long  minority  of  the  son  of  Henry  III. 
Hildebrand,  a  Tuscan  monk,  produced  by  his  great 
efforts  a  strong  reaction  against  the  imperial  power. 
He  had  influenced  the  election  of  five  popes  before  he 
himself  was  raised  to  the  papal  chair,  a.  d.  1073.  He 
strove  for  a  celibate  clergy.  He  sought  to  fasten  op- 
probrious names  on  the  wives  of  the  married  clergy. 


J 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       211 

He  deposed  every  bishop  who  had  received  his  investi- 
ture from  lay  hands.  This  matter  of  investiture  was 
settled  in  1122.  Lay  hands  no  longer  gave  the  ring 
and  crosier,  but  the  priestly  hand  touched  the  scepter 
in  token  of  homage  for  the  temporalities  received. 

Hildebrand  obtained  a  decree  against  the  married 
clergy.  The  Lombard  priests  quoted  the  teachings  of 
Ambrose,  and  the  exmnple  of  some  of  the  successors  of 
Ambrose  to  justify  themselves. 

One  of  the  flagrant  abuses  of  this  time,  was  the 
purchase  of  offices  in  the  church  ;  this  crime  was  called 
"  simony."  It  was  pretended  that  the  Lateran  council 
had  desired  to  avoid  this  sin  when  they  forbade  clergy- 
men to  receive  benefices  from  laymen  or  own  allegiance 
to  them. 

When  Gregory  VII.  became  Pope,  Henry  IV.  being 
emperor  of  Germany,  there  was  a  bitter  struggle 
between  these  potentates,  that  ended  only  with  the  life 
of  the  pope  in  exile.  It  is  said  that  this  pope  declared 
to  Henry  before  his  election,  that  when  he  took  the 
papal  chair  he  would  certainly  call  him  to  account  for 
the  scandals  and  disorders  of  which  he  was  known  to 
be  guilty.  Henry,  however,  consented  to  the  election 
of  Hildebrand.  The  Pope  commenced  his  attack  on 
what  he  deemed  the  gigantic  abuses  of  the  church  — 
"simony"  and  the  marriage  of  the  clergy. 

Gregory  VII.,  says  Mosheim,  was  the  most  daring 
of  all  the  pontiffs  that  ever  filled  the  chair  of  St.  Peter. 
He  was  greatly  excited  by  the  complaints  of  the 
Asiatic  Christians,  in  regard  to  the  cruelties  of  the 
Mahometans.  In  the  commencement  of  his  pontificate 
he  wished  to  engage  personally  in  a  Holy  War,  and  more 
than  fifty  thousand  men  were  prepared  to  march  under 


212  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

him.  But  he  was  kept  too  busy  at  home ;  it  was  re- 
served for  others  to  engage  personally  in  the  Crusades, 
not  for  him,  and  of  whom  we  shall  speak  hereafter. 

Hildebrand  was  a  Cluniancier,  a  monk  of  the  mon- 
astery of  Clugny.  He  was  a  Tuscan.  He  soon  became 
archdeacon  of  Rome,  and  from  the  time  of  Leo  IX. 
had  governed  the  pontiffs,  as  we  have  before  hinted, 
until  his  own  accession.  His  great  aim  and  desire  was 
to  make  the  papacy  omnipotent ;  this  is  proved  not 
only  by  his  acts,  but  also  by  his  writings.  He  left  cer- 
tain writings  called  dictates,  which  embody  the  most 
arrogant  propositions ;  he  was  the  vicegerent  of  Christ, 
and  was  not  accountable  to  any  mortal.  Nearly  the 
whole  form  of  the  Latin  church  was  changed  by  this 
pontiff;  the  most  valuable  rights  of  councils,  of 
bishops,  of  religious  societies,  were  subverted  and 
transferred  over  to  the  Roman  pontiff  His  vaulting 
ambition,  so  far  as  he  was  personally  concerned,  "over- 
leaped itself."  He  wished  to  reduce  all  kingdoms  into 
fiefs  of  St  Peter ;  and  to  subject  all  causes  of  kings  and 
princes  to  the  decision  of  an  assembly  of  bishops  who 
should  meet  annually  at  Rome.  He  was  considered  a 
man  of  extraordinary  abilities — intrepid,  sagacious  and 
full  of  resources — but  proud,  pertinacious,  intractable. 
He  had  a  powerful  foe  to  contend  with  in  Henry  IV., 
the  emperor  of  Germany,  and  the  vigilance  of  England 
and  France  thwarted  his  ambitious  designs. 

Much  has  been  said  of  the  humiliation  of  Henry  at 
Canossa.  Gregory  VII.  was  solemnly  deposed  by  the 
diet  at  Worms ;  Henry  IV.  by  the  council  at  Rome. 
A  sentence  of  excommunication  absolved  all  the  sub- 
jects of  Henry  from  their  allegiance,  and  declared  it  a 
crime  to  render  him  any  service.     The  papal  authority, 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  213 

more  respected  in  Germany  than  in  Italy,  encouraged 
Rudolph  of  Swabia,  with  other  nobles  and  bishops,  to 
make  a  fierce  war  upon  Henry.  A  diet  was  called  to 
Augsburg,  where  the  Pope  was  to  preside,  and  to  judge 
between  Henry  and  his  foes.  If  his  excommunication 
was  not  then  removed,  a  new  sovereign  was  to  be 
chosen.  The  emperor  in  mid-winter  traversed  some  of 
the  wildest  passes  of  the  Alps  to  meet  this  emergency. 
It  is  said  he  stood  bare-foot  and  fasting  for  three  days 
at  the  gate  of  the  castle  at  Canossa  before  he  obtained 
a  mitigation  of  the  sentence  that  had  been  passed  upon 
him  ;  he  was  required  to  promise  that  he  would  submit 
his  imperial  title  to  the  decision  of  a  diet  at  any  place 
or  time  his  holiness  should  indicate.  The  Germans 
were  indignant  that  their  sovereign  should  have  been 
thus  humiliated.  As  for  Henry,  he  no  sooner  left  the 
papal  presence,  than  he  resumed  the  war  with  fresh 
fury  and  gained  in  his  next  engagement  a  decisive  vic- 
tory over  Rudolph  of  Swabia.  The  contest  lasted  a 
long  time,  with  alternate  victories  and  defeats.  Henry 
was  excommunicated  a  second  time;  the  Pope  sent  a 
crown  to  Rudolph,  who  was  supported  by  Swabia  and 
Saxony  —  also  by  the  wealth  of  the  Countess  Matilda, 
who  was  the  devoted  friend  of  Gregory  and  who  made 
the  church  the  heir  of  her  vast  estate.  Ultimately, 
Rudolph  died  of  a  wound  received  in  battle.  Henry, 
in  revenge,  supported  by  many  German  and  Italian 
bishops,  in  a  convention  in  the  Tyrol,  created  the 
archbishop  of  Ravenna  supreme  pontiff,  under  the 
name  of  Clement  III.  He  was  consecrated  at  Rome, 
1080.  Henry  made  several  campaigns  against  the 
forces    of    Matilda,    who    were    fighting    for    Gregory. 


214  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Twice    Henry   besieged    Rome    in    1084;     he   became 
master  of  a  great  part  of  the  city. 

The  Pope  Hildebrand  meanwhile  was  shut  up  in  the 
castle  of  St.  Angelo.  He  was  delivered  from  his 
prison  by  Robert,  duke  of  Calabria  and  Apulia,  and  by 
him  taken  to  Salerno ;  and  here  it  was  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing that  this  man,  who  aspired  to  rule  the  world, 
terminated  his  days,  in  the  year  1085.  His  last  words 
were  said  to  be :  "I  have  loved  justice,  and  hated 
iniquity,  therefore  I  die  in  exile."  In  his  great  desire 
to  have  a  celibate  clergy,  he  denounced  those  who 
lived  in  virtuous  wedlock  with  their  wives,  not  distin- ' 
guishing,  as  he  should  have  done,  between  honorable 
men  and  those  who  lived  in  concubinage. 

Some  of  the  clergy  were  at  this  time  very  corrupt — 
there  was  much  outward  devotion,  but  it  was  not  un- 
frequently  divorced  from  true  piety  and  virtue.  The 
important  truth  that  religion  cannot  live,  unless  it  is 
based  on  morality,  seems  not  to  have  been  fully  recog- 
nized in  this  age.  The  Roman  head  notably  took  the 
right  side  in  several  instances,  in  behalf  of  public 
morals ;  as  in  maintaining  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage 
tie,  when  kings  and  laymen  wished  to  annul  their  mar- 
riage vows,  ' '  but  there  is  a  balance  sheet  on  the  other 
side."  Unrighteous  wars  were  maintained  by  some  of 
the  popes,  and  sons  were  encouraged  to  rebel  against 
their  fathers.  The  court  of  Rome  in  the  case  of  Charles 
of  Anjou  did  a  great  wrong  in  pretending  to  give  what 
was  not  hers,  and  it  was  attended  by  terrible  results. 
The  blood  shed  at  ' '  the  Sicilian  vespers  cried  from  the 
ground  against  the  foreign  participators." 

Western  Christendom  never  fully  recognized  the 
Pope  as  an  umpire ;  there  were  many  dissentients  and 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  21 5 

dissensions  in  the  different  kingdoms.  "There  never 
was,"  says  Trench  in  his  Medieval  History,  "  a  golden 
age  in  the  Church,  nor  ever  will  be,  until  Christ  her 
Lord  shall  come." 

The  election  *  of  pope  was  transferred  to  the  cardin- 
als by  Nicholas  II.  under  the  influence  of  Hildebrand. 
This  was  one  of  the  wisest  acts  of  his  policy.  States- 
men can  consolidate  the  power  of  a  church,  as  politic- 
ians can  increase  the  power  of  a  state.  Leo  I.,  Gregory 
I.,  Nicholas  I.,  Gregory  VII.,  Alexander  III.  and  Inno- 
cent III.  were  reckoned  as  great  statesmen. 

The  exile  and  death  of  Gregory  VII.  were  followed 
by  trying  times.  Clement  III.,  appointed  by  Henry 
IV.,  ruled  at  Rome,  and  Henry  continued  the  war  with 
the  princes.  The  friends  of  Hildebrand  had  appointed 
Victor  III.  to  the  papacy,  but  he  soon  died,  having 
never  reigned  at  Rome. 

In  1095,  Urban  II.  having  acceded  to  the  papacy, 
the  council  of  Clermont  determined  upon  the  first  cru- 
sade against  the  Mahometans  in  Palestine. 

But  before  we  enter  upon  the  crusades,  we  will 
speak  of  two  remarkable  men  who  lived  in  England 
in  the  eleventh  century.  One  of  the  first  acts  of 
William  I.  after  the  conquest  f  of  England,  was  to  send 
for  Lanfranc  from  Normandy,  to  aid  him  in  the  reform 
of  the  Church,  as  he  termed  it.  Lanfranc  was  raised 
to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  His  elevation  was  followed 
by  the  removal  of  most  of  the  English  prelates  and  the 
appointment  of  Norman  ecclesiastics  in  their  places. 
The  new  archbishop  did  much,  says  a  contemporary,  to 
restore  discipline,  "as  in  choosing  bishops  he  consid- 

'  A.  D.  1080.  t  Norman  Conquest,  A.  D.  1066. 


2l6  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

ered  not  so  much  men's  riches  or  power  as  their  holi- 
ness and  wisdom."  It  must,  however,  have  been  a 
grievous  thing  to  the  Saxons  to  see  their  native  clergy 
displaced  for  Norman  ecclesiastics.  Lanfranc  opened 
a  famous  Benedictine  school,  to  which  Berengarius  was 
attracted.  He  afterwards  became  celebrated  as  a  con- 
troversialist on  the  subject  of  the  Eucharist.  Lanfranc 
was  esteemed  as  a  man  of  learning  and  munificence. 
He  improved  the  monastic  system,  and  built  hospitals, 
churches  and  cathedrals. 

Lanfranc's  successor  to  the  see  of  Canterbury  was 
Anselm.  He  was  so  learned  and  industrious  in  inter- 
preting the  doctrines  of  the  greatest  of  the  Latin 
fathers,  that  he  has  been  called  the  Augustine  of  the 
middle  ages.*  The  life  of  Anselm  has  been  written 
not  only  by  the  brethren  of  his  own  order,  but  by 
Protestant  writers  and  historians  of  philosophy. 

Anselm  was  so  bold  in  reproving  the  rapacity  of 
William  Rufus,  that  he  was  banished  for  a  time.  At 
the  accession  of  Henry  L  he  was  recalled,  and  was 
clothed  with  much  power,  both  in  church  and  state. 
Henry  wished  to  marry  a  Saxon  princess,  the  niece  of 
Edgar  Atheling.  This  lady  was  detained  in  a  convent 
by  her  aunt,  the  abbess,  who  maintained  that  her  neice 
had  assumed  the  veil.  The  princess  escaped  from  the 
convent  and  appearing  before  Anselm  at  Canterbury, 
"told  her  tale  in  wo'rds  of  passionate  earnestness." 
She  had  been  veiled  in  her  childhood,  asserted  Matilda, 

*  When  Anselm  was  asked  by  the  Norman  bishops  if  he  considered 
Alfege,  who  was  killed  by  the  Danes  at  Greenwich,  could  be  called  a 
martyr,  because  he  died  not  on  behalf  of  the  faith  of  Christ,  he  said, 
•'  Yes,  he  was  a  martyr,  because  he  died  ior  Justice  (to  prevent  the  levy- 
ing of  an  unjust  tax) ;  justice  is  the  essence  of  Christ,  even  though  His 
name  is  not  mentioned. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  21/ 

merely  to  protect  her  from  rude  soldiery.  Anselm  de- 
clared her  free  from  conventual  bonds,  and  when  he 
placed  the  crown  on  her  head  as  England's  queen, 
uniting  her  in  marriage  to  Henry,  the  joyful  shouts  of 
the  English  multitude  drowned  the  murmurs  of  either 
churchman  or  Norman  baron. 

Anselm,  it  is  said,  possessed  much  zeal,  charity  and 
faith,  and  differed  much  in  his  spirit  from  his  successor, 
Thomas  a  Becket. 

St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  was  the  most  influential 
man  of  his  time.  He  did  not,  as  Anselm,  grapple  with 
the  deep  questions  of  philosophy,  but  with  the  practical 
issues  of  his  day.  St.  Bernard  was  a  great  organizer. 
When  there  were  two  popes  in  Europe,  Bernard,  the 
abbot  of  Clairvaux  in  1130,  was  the  governing  head  of 
Europe.  He  was  the  master-spirit  that  organized  the 
second  crusade;  his  eloquence  was  irresistible.  One 
hundred  and  sixty  monasteries  derived  their  rules  from 
him.  Among  his  disciples  were  many  bishops  and  one 
pontiff,  Eugenius  HI.  He  left  many  writings.  All 
Christians  sing  the  beautiful  hymn  attributed  to  St. 
Bernard.      We  will  transcribe  four  verses  : — 

"  Jesus,  the  very  thought  of  Thee 
With  sweetness  fills  the  breast ; 
But  sweeter  far  Thy  face  to  see, 
And  in  Thy  presence  rest. 

No  voice  can  sing,  no  heart  can  frame, 

Nor  can  the  memory  find, 
A  sweeter  sound  than  Jesus'  name, 

The  Saviour  of  mankind. 

Oh  Hope  of  every  contrite  heart, 
Oh  Joy  of  all  the  meek  ; 


2l8  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

To  those  who  fall,  how  kind  Thou  art ! 
How  good  to  those  who  seek. 

But  what  to  those  who  fitid  ? 

Ah  this  !  Nor  tongue  nor  pen  can  show  : 
The  love  of  Jesus,  what  it  is 

None  but  his  loved  ones  know. 

St.  Bernard  was  called  ' '  The  Watchdog  of  the 
Church."  He  with  energy  forbade  the  persecution  of 
the  Jews.  There  was  a  schism  in  the  sacred  college 
after  the  death  of  Hildebrand.  Peter  of  Leon,  the  son 
of  a  Jew,  but  a  cardinal  of  ability,  sought  the  papacy. 
He  possessed  much  wealth.  Several  of  the  cardinals 
hostile  to  Peter  called  a  secret  conclave  and  nominated 
Innocent  H.  At  the  head  of  this  conclave  was  St. 
Bernard.  Peter  for  a  while  by  his  wealth  and  ability 
seemed  to  overshadow  the  claims  of  Innocent.  Peter 
took  the  name  of  Anacletus.  The  Jew's  son  reigned  a 
short  time  in  Rome.  Bernard  visited  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe,  and  by  his  earnest  appeals  secured  their  assent 
in  setting  aside  the  claims  of  Anacletus  in  the  secular 
courts.  When  he  visited  the  German  emperor,  he  v/as 
accompanied  by  Innocent.  Holding  the  bridle  of  the 
horse  upon  which  Innocent  rode,  the  emperor  led  the 
candidate  for  the  papacy  through  the  streets  of  Liege. 
But  more  honored  was  the  Cistercian  monk  of  Clairvaux 
than  either  pope  or  emperor.  He  visited  the  convent 
of  the  Carmelites,  of  which  Heloise  was  abbess.  Through 
his  influence,  it  is  said,  Abelard  declined  to  assert  his 
opinions  at  the  council  of  Sens,  in  1140. 

St.  Bernard  was  well  acquainted  with  the  Scriptures, 
but  quotes  chiefly  from  the  Vulgate,*  and  shows  little 


••Vulgate,"  is  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  in  Latin. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  2lg 

acquaintance  of  the  Greek  or  Hebrew  text.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  his  sermons  in  the  common  tongue  have 
not  survived,  as  he  awakened  so  mighty  a  revival  by 
his  preaching.  He  once,  it  is  said,  healed  a  feud  in  an 
opposing  army  of  the  knights  and  people  of  Metz  on 
opposite  banks  of  the  Moselle.  At  first  they  were  dis- 
posed to  despise  the  eloquent  entreaties  of  the  ghost-like 
old  man,  but  ultimately  they  united  in  singing  the 
Gloria  in  Excelsis,  and  departed  in  peace.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  sixty-three,  a.  d.  1153. 


220       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

THE    CRUSADES. 

Palestine  was  among  the  earliest  conquests  of  the 
Saracens.*  The  Caliph,  Omar,  took  Jerusalem  in  a.  d. 
637.  The  Mahometans  occupied  the  Holy  City,  but  the 
Christians  for  a  long  time  after  its  conquest  still  re- 
tained the  Holy  Sepulchre  and  the  Church  of  the  Re- 
surrection. Pilgrims  from  all  the  countries  in  Europe 
went  thither  and  were  undisturbed.  Harounal  Ras- 
chid,  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  and  the  hero  of  many  Arabian 
tales,  sent  the  keys  of  Jerusalem  to  his  great  contem- 
porary Charlemagne.  These  keys  were  intended  as  a 
symbol  of  safety  and  security  to  the  Christian  visitors 
of  that  city.  When,  however,  the  Seljukian  Turks  in 
the  eleventh  century  took  Palestine  from  the  Saracens, 
they  inflicted  upon  the  Christian  residents  many  atroci- 
ties, and  treated  the  pilgrims  visiting  the  Holy  City 
with  much  indignity.  The  Egyptian  Caliphs  also 
sometimes  refused  protection.  These  grievances  were 
soon  made  known  to  all  Christendom.  Michael  VII; , 
the  Byzantine  emperor,  fearing  that  the  Turks  would 
take  Constantinople,  sent  to  Gregory  to  entreat  assist- 
ance. Another  embassy  was  sent  a  few  years  after- 
ward by  Alexis  Comnenus  to  Urban  II.  Peter  the 
Hermit,  an  obscure  man  of  Picardy,  precipitated  the 
movement.  He  had  gone  as  a  pilgrim  to  Jerusalem ; 
he  had  witnessed  the  wrongs  perpetrated  upon  Chris- 


*  The  Arab  followers  of  Mahomet  were  called  Saracens. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       221 

tians.  His  soul  was  filled  with  enthusiasm.  By  his 
preaching  he  kindled  into  flame  the  smouldering  fires  in 
the  bosoms  of  the  men  of  the  West.  In  1096  vast 
armies  left  Europe  for  the  East  under  different  leaders. 
Peter  led  an  army  of  poor  people,  many  of  whom  per- 
ished miserably.  Few  of  them  reached  Palestine.  A 
division  of  this  army  under  Walter  *  the  Penniless,  was 
destroyed  in  Bulgaria.  Peter  conducted  a  large 
number  across  the  Bosphorus  who  were  destroyed  by 
the  Turks.  Those  cruel  barbarians  made  a  pyramid  of 
their  bones. 

No  king  accompanied  the  first  crusade,  but  a 
number  of  feudal  princes.  Among  these  princes  was 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  the  eldest  son  of  WilHam 
the  Conqueror;  Godfrey  Bouillon,  Raymond,  count  of 
Toulouse,  Bohemond,  of  Tarento,  Tancred  and  others. 
T)\Q.  first  rank,  both  in  war  and  council,  is  due  to  God- 
frey. "Happy,"  says  Gibbon,  "would  it  have  been 
for  the  crusaders  if  they  had  yielded  to  the  sway  of  that 
accomplished  hero,  a  worthy  representative  of  Charle- 
magne, from  whom  he  was  descended  in  the  female 
line.  His  father  was  of  the  noblest  race  of  the  counts 
of  Boulogne.  Brabant,  a  province  of  Lorraine,  was  the 
inheritance  from  his  mother.  In  the  service  of  Henry 
IV.  he  had  borne  the  great  standard  of  the  empire,  he 
had  pierced  with  his  lance  Rudolph,  the  rebel  king, 
and  was  \}!\q.  first  to  ascend  the  walls  of  Rome:  he  had 
borne  arms  against  the  Pope  !     His  sorrow  for  that  act 


*  Walter  was  reputed  to  be  a  good  captain.  His  followers  per- 
ished in  consequence  of  the  crimes  they  themselves  committed.  So 
little  did  they  comprehend  the  nature  of  the  mission  they  had  under- 
taken. Few  of  them  knew  anything  of  the  teachings  of  the  Prince  of 
of  Peace. 


222       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

now  confirmed,  perhaps,  a  resolution  he  had  made  to 
visit  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  not  as  a  pilgrim,  but  as  a  de-" 
liverer. 

Godfrey  was  accompanied  by  his  brothers  Eustace 
and  Baldwin.  Godfrey  lived  on  the  Rhine  and  knew 
the  languages  spoken  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  He 
was  among  heroic  men  the  hero  and  the  victor  of  the 
first  crusade,  the  one  who  deserved  to  wear  the  crown 
for  his  good  and  great  qualities. 

"  Two  causes,  the  one  moral  and  the  other  social, 
impelled  Europe  to  the  crusades.  The  moral  cause 
was  the  constant  struggle  Christianity  had  had  to 
maintain  with  Islam  ism.  This  struggle  began  at  the 
close  of  the  seventh  century.  It  succeeded  in  confin- 
ing the  religion  of  Mahomet  to  the  south  of  Spain. 
The  social  cause  was  the  aspiration  of  the  people  for  a 
wider  sphere.  A  vast  and  unexplored  world  was  laid 
open  to  the  view  of  European  intelligence  by  the  con- 
sequences of  the  crusades.  The  Crusaders  were  brought 
into  contact  with  two  statc.'s  of  civilization.  The  pol- 
ished Greeks  on  the  one  hand  (though  enervated  by 
luxury),  and  the  Mussulman  on  the  other.  Mongol 
ambassadors,  we  are  told,  were  sent  to  Christian  kings, 
to  persuade  them  to  enter  into  alliance  for  the  common 
interest  of  the  Mongols  and  Christians. 

One  of  the  most  conspicuous  nobles  that  assumed 
the  cross  in  the  first  crusade  was  Hugh,  count  of  Ver- 
mandois,  brother  of  the  king  of  France.  Robert  of 
Normandy  attained  no  distinction,  on  account  of  his 
indolent,  easy  temper.  Stephen,  count  of  VJlois,  was 
one  of  the  richest  men  of  his  time  ;  he  was  eloquent  and 

*  Guizot. 


ANXALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  223 

literary,  and  was  chosen  by  the  chiefs  as  their  presi- 
dent. The  legate  of  the  Pope  was  Adhemar,  from 
southern  France.  From  the  same  region  came  Ray- 
mond of  Toulouse.  These  two,  the  prelate  and  the 
veteran  warrior,  assumed  the  command  of  large  bodies 
of  men.  Raymond  had  fought  the  Saracens  of  Spain, 
he  wished  now  to  devote  his  declining  years  to  the 
service  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Bohemond,  the  son  of 
Robert  Guiscard,  was  already  famous  for  a  victory  over 
the  Greek  emperor.  Several  Norman  princes,  together 
with  his  cousin,  Tancred,  accompanied  Bohemond. 
This  general  is  described  by  historians  as  unscrupulous 
and  designing,  a  cool  and  crafty  politician ;  while 
Taticred's  love  of  glory  and  his  disdain  of  wrong  and 
perfidy  rendered  him  the  mirror  of  European  chivalry. 
Both  history  and  poetry  describe  him  as  a  true  knight. 
He  is  a  favorite  of  Tasso  in  his  great  Epic.  It  is  said 
that  he,  Tancred,  sought  diligently  to  mitigate  the 
sufferings  of  the  defeated  at  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
when  the  fanatical  crusaders  were  sating  their  ven- 
geance in  the  blood  of  the  Mahometans.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  romantic  interest  that  surrounds  the 
name  of  Tancred  is  chiefly  due  to  Tasso,  who  in  his 
great  poem,  "  Geru.salemne  liberata,"  makes  Tancred 
the  lover  of  Clorinda,  the  heroine  of  the  poem.  Both 
poetry  and  painting  have  sometimes  assumed  the  garb 
and  authority  of  history. 

Godfrey,  of  Bouillon,  commenced  his  march  from 
the  banks  of  the  Moselle ;  he  conducted  his  people  with 
admirable  prudence  and  order  by  the  .same  route  that 
proved  so  disastrous  to  the  rabble  tkat  preceded  him. 
When  he  reached  Hungary  he  demanded  from  the 
king  an  explanation  of  the  circumstances  that  provoked 


224  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

their  destruction.  The  king  exposed  the  crimes  that 
raised  the  vengeance  of  the  Hungarians. 

Walter  was  represented  as  a  good  captain,  but 
utterly  unable  to  control  the  host  that  followed  him. 
He  perished  in  Asia  Minor  in  a  conflict  with  the 
Turks. 

Peter  the  Hermit  reached  Palestine  in  safety,  and 
witnessed  the  victory  that  Bouillon  and  the  other  lead- 
ers achieved.  ' '  The  grateful  multitudes,  instructed  by 
the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem*  (who  had  just  arrived  in  the 
camp  from  an  exile  (in  Cyprus),  prostrated  themselves 
before  the  poor  solitary  of  Amiens,  as  a  revered  and 
chosen  servant  of  God.  How  great  must  have  been 
his  joy  and  gratitude  at  that  moment?  His  name  is 
never  mentioned  afterwards.  "  f  His  success  is  a  strik- 
ing proof  of  the  power  of  simple  earnestness. 

When  the  crusaders  entered  the  Byzantine  prov- 
inces their  able  leader  continued  to  maintain  strict  dis- 
cipline. Alexius,  the  emperor  oi  Constantinople,  assisted 
his  efforts  by  supplying  the  wants  of  the  army  in  its 
passage  through  the  desolate  forests  of  Bulgaria,  until 
the  first  division  of  the  European  chivalry  had  entered 
into  the  fertile  fields  of  Thrace.  It  is  possible  that 
the  host  of  Godfrey  would  have  perished,  without 
his  aid,  in  passing  amid  lands  imperfectly  cultivated 
and  among  barbarous  natives.  We  must  look  with 
suspicion  upon  the  reports  of  some  Latin  chron- 
iclers, who  acknowledge  a  kind  reception  at  first, 
but  afterwards  accuse  the  emperor  of  perfidy  and  hos- 
tility. It  is  probable  that  the  confidence  he  reposed  in 
the  noble  designs  of  Godfrey  did  not  extend  to  all  the 


*  Peter,     t  "  His  work  was  done." 


ANNALS    OF   THE   CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  225 

leaders.  Bohemond  had  been  his  enemy,  and  he  may- 
have  suspected  him  of  a  design  to  subjugate  the  East- 
ern world  to  the  spiritual  dominion  of  the  Latin  church, 
under  the  plea  of  delivering  the  Holy  Sepulchre  from  the 
hands  of  the  Turks.  By  the  decay  of  the  power  of  the 
Seljukian  Turks,*  he  had  been  delivered  from  \k\Q  fear 
that  his  predecessors  had  felt  of  the  ruin  of  his  empire. 
The  splendor  of  Constantinople  excited  great  astonish- 
ment and  perhaps  envy  in  the  breasts  of  the  Latins. 
Hugh,  of  Vermandois,  the  two  Roberts  and  the  Count 
of  Chartres  had  passed  through  France  and  Italy  for 
the  purpose  of  embarkation. 

The  Pope  had  given  to  the  brother  of  the  king  of 
France  the  standard  of  St.  Peter.  This  Count  of 
France  sent  a  haughty  message  to  the  emperor,  to 
prepare  to  receive  the  standard-bearer  of  the  Pope,  and 
the  brother  of  the  king.  This  message  was  resented  as 
an  insult  by  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople.  The 
crusaders  retaliated.  Eventually,  the  Count  of  Verman- 
dois was  taken  prisoner,  and  instead  of  the  magnificent 
reception  he  had  claimed  and  contemplated,  he  entered 
Durazzo  as  a  suppliant.  His  brother  crusaders  now 
joined  their  forces  with  his  and  compelled  or  induced 
Alexius,  by  severe  retaliation,  to  submit  to  their 
wishes.  After  several  collisions  of  arms  and  some  de- 
grading compliances  (as  some  thought),  the  crusading 
levies  at  length  effected  a  junction  on  the  plains  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  Provencal  forces  were  the  last  to  arise. 
Tancred  had  crossed  the  Bosphorus  in  disguise,  in  ad- 
vance of  Bohemond's  forces,  not  wishing  to  acknowl- 
edge himself,  as  his  cousin  Bohemond  had  done,  the 
vassal  of  a  foreign  prince, 

■*  The  Greek  emperor. 


226  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

The  Christian  hosts  now  directed  their  steps  to 
Nice,  the  former  capital  of  Bithynia,  at  this  time  the 
capital  of  a  Turkish  kingdom  founded  in  1074  by  the 
Seljukian  Turks.  The  Christians  captured  this  city,  it 
is  said,  by  the  timely  aid  and  assistance  of  Alexius. 
The  morning  after  the  defeat  of  the  Turks,  the  crusad- 
ing leaders  were  mortified  and  infuriated  to  see  the  im- 
penal  banner  of  Alexius  floating  over  the  ramparts  of 
Nice.  It  will  be  remembered  that  in  this  city  Nice 
was  the  fii'st  council  oi  the  church,  held  in  a.  d.  325. 
The  murmurs  of  the  crusading  chiefs  were  soon  stifled 
by  honor  or  interest.  In  a  few  days  they  set  out  for 
Antioch,  This  superb  old  city,  the  capital  of  the 
Greek  Seleucidae,  was  now  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eleventh  century,  governed  by  a  Turkish  Emir.  This 
city  had  a  special  historical  interest,  in  the  eyes  of 
Christians  of  every  age ;  to  this  city,  it  was  said,  many 
Christians  had  fled  after  the  persecution  of  Stephen; 
here  Paul  and  Barnabas  had  preached,  and  here,  says 
the  evangelist  Luke,  ' '  the  disciples  were  first  called 
Christians,"  When  the  Crusaders  reached  this  famous 
city  there  were  many  (called)  Christians  yet  in  An- 
tioch. 

Bohemond  soon  discovering  that  the  Christians 
were  full  of  discontent,  availed  himself  of  the  favor  of 
a  prominent  citizen,  who  possessed  the  confidence  of 
the  Turkish  Emir,  to  betray  the  city  to  them  (the 
Crusaders),  but  reserving  to  himself  the  sovereignty  of 
that  great  city.  But,  lo,  while  the  Crusaders  were  ex- 
pecting an  easy  victory,  the  lieutenant  of  the  Persian 
king  appeared  before  Antioch  with  a  mighty  host ;  this 
mighty  army  had  previously  been  directed  against 
Edessa,  the  capital  that  Baldwin  had  made  his  own,  but 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       22/ 

hearing  that  Antioch  was  Hkely  to  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  Christians  the  Persian  general  rushed  impetu- 
ously to  Antioch.  The  deliverance  of  the  Crusaders 
from  this  mighty  host  has  been  ascribed,  in  a  super- 
stitious age,  to  miracle. 

The  losses  of  the  Christian  army  had  been  great 
before  they  reached  Antioch.  The  count  of  Toulouse 
and  the  duke  of  Lorraine  were  carried  in  litters.  Ray- 
mond was  ill  with  disease,  Godfrey  had  been  wounded 
in  a  contest  with  a  bear.  Tancred  and  Baldwin  had 
been  detached  sometime  before  from  the  main  army, 
with  their  squadrons  of  five  and  seven  hundred  knights. 
Honor  and  fame  was  the  reward  of  Tancred,  but  the  city 
of  Edessa  was  the  portion  of  Baldwin,  his  more  selfish 
rival. 

The  Christians  at  Antioch  now  suddenly  find  them- 
selves surrounded  by  the  army  of  Kerbogen,  the  lieu- 
tenant of  the  king  of  Persia.  The  Crusaders  were  be- 
sieged within  the  city.  Among  their  chiefs  there  were 
at  least  three  heroes  who  were  without  fear  or  re- 
proach. Godfrey  was  sustained  by  pious  hope,  Bo- 
hemond  by  ambition  ;  Tancred  declared  that  so  long  as 
he  had  forty  knights  he  would  never  relinquish  a  holy 
enlerprise.  For  twenty-five  days  the  Christian  army 
seemed  on  the  verge  of  destruction.  In  this  extremity, 
the  choice  of  servitude  or  death,  they  gathered  up  the 
relics  of  their  strength,  sallied  from  the  city,  and  in  Ofie 
day  dispersed  the  host  of  Turks  and  Arabians,  which 
consisted,  as  the  uncertain  chroniclers  of  that  day  re- 
port, of  hundreds  of  thousands. 

We  have  alluded  to  miracle.  While  in  great  dis- 
tress at  Antioch,  a  priest  of  Marseilles  pretended  that 
St.    Andrew  had  appeared   to  him,  and  disclosed   the 


228  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


ut  1 


exact  spot  where  the  sacred  lance  lay  that  had  pierced 
the  side  of  our  Lord.  This  lance  was  found  and  put 
into  the  hands  of  one  who  led  the  procession  of  priests 
on  the  day  that  they  sallied  forth,  singing  the  martial 
psalm,  "Let  the  Lord  arise,  and  let  his  enemies  be 
scattered."  The  enthusiastic  shouts  were  loud  and 
long  when  the  sacred  lance  was  brandished.  "Its 
potent  energy  was  assisted  by  a  rumor  or  a  stratagem 
of  miraculous  complexion."  Three  knights  were  said 
to  stand  on  the  hill  beyond  them,  dressed  in  resplend- 
ent garments  with  arms  in  their  hands.  Adhemar,  the 
Pope's  legate,  pointed  them  out  to  the  people,  pro- 
claiming them  to  be  the  martyrs  St.  George,  St.  Maur- 
ice and  St.  Theodore.*  "The  tumult  of  battle,"  says 
Gibbon,  "gave  no  time  for  scrutiny;  the  welcome  ap- 
parition kindled  into  a  flame  the  superstitious  enthusi- 
asm of  the  army."  Milman  thinks  the  true  cause  of 
the  remarkable  victory  was  a  terrible  feud  in  Ker- 
bogen's  army.  Was  not  this  the  providence  of  God? 
After  a  delay  of  several  months  the  goal  for  which  they 
had  dared  and  suffered  so  much  was  attained ;  the  re- 
duced army  reached  Jerusalem.  Their  victorious  ban- 
ners were  planted  on  the  heights  of  Jerusalem  in  1099. 
Here  a  new  kingdom  was  established.  Godfrey  was 
proclaimed  king.  It  is  said  he  refused  the  title  of  king 
or  the  crown  f  from  motives  of  modesty,  saying  that  he 
would  not  wear  a  crown  of  gold  where  his  Master  had 
worn  a  crown  of  thorns.  He  reigned  as  king,  how- 
ever, and  permitted  the  soldiers  who  loved  him  and 

*  This  incident  at  the  battle  of  Antioch  recalls  the  old  Roman  story 
of  the  battle  of  Regillus,  when  the  leaders  pretended  that  Castor  and 
Pollux  might  be  seen  at  the  head  of  their  forces.  A  temple  com 
memorative  of  this  victory  was  dedicated  to  them  at  Rome. 

t  He  refused  to  be  crowned. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  229 

wished  to  remain  with  him  to  continue  in  the  city  they 
had  helped  to  conquer,  but  the  discontented  and  rest- 
less returned  to  Europe.  Godfrey  died  in  a  year  after 
his  conquest,  leaving  his  throne  to  his  brother  Baldwin, 
and  his  name  to  Christendom, 

"One  of  the  few,  the  immortal  names 
That  were  not  born  to  die." 


230       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

THE    CRUSADES — CONTINUED. 

Louis  VII.  of  France  and  Conrad  III.,  emperor  of' 
Germany,  led  the  second  crusade.  They  were  incited 
to  this  by  Bernard,  abbot  of  Clairvaux.  The  new  king- 
dom of  Jerusalem  was  still  in  the  possession  of  Chris- 
tians when  this  second  crusade  was  projected,  but 
Edessa  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  infidels,  and 
Antioch  was  threatened.  Many  of  the  Christian  princes 
of  the  first  crusade  had  returned  home,  and  the  courage 
of  the  Christians  in  Palestine  began  to  waver.  They  now 
begged  for  new  armies  of  crusaders. 

Louis  and  Conrad  collected  large  armies,  and  led 
them  to  Palestine  in  1 147.  They  reached  Jerusalem, 
but  did  not  effect  any  important  results.  They  returned 
to  Europe  in  1149.  The  second  crusade  was  a  failure! 
A  want  of  harmony  among  the  chiefs  of  this  enterprise 
rendered  futile  the  great  preparations  they  had  made. 

In  thirty-eight  years  from  the  time  of  their  retreat, 
the  famous  Saladin,  a  Saracen,  had  become  viceroy  of 
Egypt  and  Syria.  He  had  assailed  the  Christians  at 
the  battle  of  Tiberias,  1187,  captured  Guy,  king  of 
Jerusalem,  and  in  the  same  year  captured  Jerusalem. 
For  almost  a  century  the  Christians  had  held  it  as  their 
own.  Great  was  the  grief  and  consternation  in  Europe 
when  the  "Fall  of  Jerusalem"  reached  them.  The 
king  of  the  two  Sicilies  and  the  kings  of  England  and 
France  at  once  concentrated  plans  for  a  third  crusade. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  23 1 

The  aged  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  summoned  a  diet 
at  Metz,  in  which  he  himself  and  his  son,  with  eighty- 
eight  spiritual  and  temporal  lords,  assumed  the  cross. 
The  emperor  crossed  the  Hellespont,  not  choosing  to 
go  to  Constantinople.  In  Asia  Minor  he  had  a  battle 
with  the  Turks,  in  which  he  conquered  their  capital 
city,  Iconium,  after  experiencing  heavy  losses.  Shortly 
after  he  was  drowned  when  bathing  in  a  river  of  Cilicia. 
Some  writers  say,  it  was  the  river  Cydnus,  which  had  §o 
nearly  proved  fatal  to  Alexander  the  Great.  This  is  the 
river,  too,  upon  which  the  Egyptian  queen  Cleopatra 
sailed,  with  great  pomp  and  luxury,  to  meet  Anthony. 
When  the  master-spirit,  Barbarossa,  was  taken  away, 
little  was  done  by  his  army,  the  remains  of  which 
finally  reached  Acre. 

Meanwhile,  Richard  I.*  and  Philip  Augustus  had 
arrived  at  Acre.  This  city  surrendered  to  them  1191. 
The  crusaders,  in  violation  of  their  word,  butchered 
five  thousand  Turks,  who  had  been  left  in  their  hands 
as  hostages. 

During  these  wars  for  the  possession  of  the  Holy 
Land  arose  the  three  celebrated  orders  to  which  we 
have  alluded  in  another  place ;  the  Knights  of  St. 
John,  the  Templars,  and  the  Teutonic  Knights,  who 
combined  the  charities  of  the  Hespitallers  with  the 
chivalric  vow  of  the  Templars.  These  last  bound 
themselves  to  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  the  defense  of 
the  holy  places. 

The  king  of  France  returned  to  Europe  shortly 
after  the  siege  of  Acre,  leaving  a  part  of  his  army 
under  the  conduct  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy. 


*  King  of  England — Coeur  de  Lion. 


232       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

After  Philip's  departure,  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion 
prosecuted  the  war  with  vigor ;  he  not  only  vanquished 
the  great  Saladin  in  several  battles,  but  took  the  cities 
Jaffa*  and  Caesarea  in  Palestine.  When  almost  in  sight 
of  Jerusalem,  it  is  said  the  French  and  Italians  refused 
to  accompany  him,  atid  he  was  compelled  to  desist 
from  the  undertaking.  He  made,  therefore,  a  truce 
with  Saladin  for  three  years,  three  months  and  three 
djtys. 

At  the  close  of  the  first  crusade  a  large  portion  of 
Palestine  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Christians  ;  at  one 
time  only  four  cities  were  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 
But  their  possessions  soon  escaped  from  their  grasp, 
after  the  third  crusade. 

Richard  at  the  siege  of  Acre  had  offended  the  duke 
of  Austria,  whose  revenge  was  implacable,  and  caused 
Richard  a  long  and  weary  captivity.  He  regained  his 
liberty  by  a  heavy  ransom  collected  by  his  mother, 
Eleanor,  and  paid  to  the  emperor  of  Germany. 

The  fourth  crusade  was  commenced  in  1200.  Inno- 
cent III.  was  the  great  mover,  and  it  was  chiefly 
French  in  its  character  and  composition.  They  went 
to  Venice  in  1 202,  expecting  to  be  transported  in  Ven- 
etian ships  to  the  Bosphorus.  As  the  people  of  Venice 
required  a  larger  sum  than  they  could  pay,  they  agreed 
to  aid  the  Venetians,  in  lieu  of  money,  to  assist  them 
in  taking  a  town  in  Dalmatia  that  had  revolted.  This 
they  accomplished  in  defiance  of  a  papal  proJitbition, 
and  without  the  sanction  of  their  chief,  Montserrat. 
They  then  went  to  Constantinople   and  agreed  with 

*  In  this  city  Jaffa,  a  Christian  school  is  now  (1882)  taught  by  some 
devoted  Episcopal  missionaries  from  the  valley  of  Virginia,  in  the 
United  States. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  233 

Alexis,  the  son  of  the  deposed  emperor  Isaac  Angelus, 
to  restore  his  father  to  the  throne.  These  princes 
being  restored,  soon  died  in  an  insurrection  of  the 
people.  The  crusaders,  pretending  at  first  to  be  the 
champions  of  the  dead  princes,  waged  successful  war, 
took  the  city,  and  established  a  Latin  empire  at  Con- 
stantinople which  lasted  about  fifty-seven  years.  The 
territorj^  conquered  was  divided  beween  the  Venetians 
and  their  Western  associates.  In  taking  the  city  much 
that  was  antique,  rare  and  beautiful  was  destroyed  ; 
sculptures  preserved  from  ancient  Greece  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  rude  barbarians.  The  Venetians,  more 
discerning  of  beauty,  saved  the  fine  bronze  horses  of 
Lysippus   to  adorn   a  church   in   Venice.* 

Michael  Paleologus  in  1261  expelled  the  sixth  Ven- 
etian usurper  and  recovered  the  throne  of  the  Greek 
empire. 

Though  Jerusalem  had  fallen,  the  Christians  still 
claimed  a  right  to  the  shadowy  crown  of  Jerusalem. 
The  king  of  France  designated  John  of  Brienne  to  be 
the  husband  of  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Isabella  and 
Conrad  of  Montserrat.  No  nobleman  in  Palestine  was 
judged  so  worthy  as  /le  to  share  this  nominal  but  peril- 
ous honor.  John  was  accompanied  from  Europe  by 
three  hundred  knights,  the  whole  contribution  at  the 
time,  to  recover  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  This  new  king 
of  Jerusalem  appealed  for  aid.  Innocent  III.  made  a 
stirring  appeal  to  all  western  Christendom.  Egypt 
was  now  the  stronghold  of  the  Moslem  power. 


*  Over  the  portals  of  St.  Mark's  Cathedral,  in  Venice,  stand  the 
bronze  horses  of  Lysippus,  brought  from  the  hippodrome  of  Constan- 
tinople. Lysippus  was  a  sculptor  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
B.  c.  330. 


234  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

The  fifth  crusade  was  undertaken  by  the  united 
forces  of  Itahans  and  Germans.  The  commander-in- 
chief  was  Andrew,  king  of  Hungary.  Honorius  III. 
had  now  succeeded  to  Innocent  IH.,  1216.  Andrew 
after  one  campaign  returned  to  Hungary.  The  other 
generals  captured  the  strong  city  of  Damietta  in  Egypt, 
A.  D.  1220.  Their  successes  were  of  brief  duration, 
for  the  next  year  a  Saracen  fleet  destroyed  that  of 
the  Christians  and  cut  off  their  suppHes.  They  lost 
Damietta. 

A  new  army  of  crusaders  was  now  enrolled  by  the 
legate  and  missionaries  of  the  pontiff;  this  army  was 
increased  by  the  idea  that  their  commander  would  be 
the  great  Frederick  II.  This  monarch  had  promised 
the  pope  that  he  would  command  the  army  in  his  own 
person.  Frederick  had  married  Jolanda,  the  daughter 
of  Brienne,  king  of  Jerusalem,  which  was  an  additional 
reason  why  he  should  keep  his  crusading  vow.  But 
under  various  pretexts  he  delayed  going  to  Palestine 
until  1228.  Frederick  being  then  excommunicated,  he 
set  out  with  a  small  retinue  to  join  the  forces  that  were 
anxiously  awaiting  his  arrival  in  Palestine,  Instead  of 
carrying  on  the  war,  he  soon  terminated  it.  * 

Yet  he  did  much;  he  made  a  treaty  with  the  sultan, 
by  which  the  Christians  were  to  be  allowed  freely  to  visit 
Jerusalem  ;  and  Bethlehem,  Nazareth  and  other  places 
were  made  over  to  them.  He  made  a  truce  of  ten 
years  with  the  sultan  ;  the  principal  condition  was  that 
he  should  be  regarded  as  the  king  of  Jerusalem.  When 
he  visited  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  it  is  said 


•Gibbon  says,  "  F'rederick  II.  despised  the  phantoms  of  supersti- 
tion, and  the  kingdoms  of  Asia.  He  wished  to  establish  the  Italian 
monarchy  from  Sicily  to  the  Alps." 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  235 

he  took  the  crown  from  the  altar  and  put  it  upon  his 
own  head.  We  suppose  the  priests  would  not  crown 
him,  as  he  had  been  excommunicated. 

The  fifth  crusade  was  brought  to  a  happy  termina- 
tion, yet  the  pope's*  anger  still  raged  against  the  em- 
peror. He  attempted  to  inflict  many  injuries  upon  him 
during  his  absence.  The  emperor  returned  to  Germany 
in  1229. 

The  quarrels  of  the  crusaders  in  Palestine  led  to  the 
loss  of  the  good  that  Frederick  had  obtained  for  them. 
•  A  sixth  crusade  was  proclaimed.  The  sultan  of  Egypt 
determined  to  be  beforehand  with  his  enemies.  He 
entered  Palestine,  and  drove  the  Christians  from  Jeru- 
salem. The  nobility  of  England  and  France  determined 
to  go  yet  again  to  the  relief  of  Palestine.  Theobald, 
count  of  Campania  and  king  of  Navarre,  with  other 
French  and  German  princes,  went  in  1239;  Richard 
of  Cornwall,  the  brother  of  Henry  IH.  of  England,  in 
1240.  The  English  were  well  received  by  the  Chris- 
tians, whose  affairs  they  reestablished.  Jerusalem  and 
the  greater  part  of  Palestine  were  surrendered  by  the 
sultan  of  Egypt  ;  the  walls  -of  Jerusalem  were  rebuilt 
and  the  churches  reconsecrated. 

The  objects  of  this  expedition  having  been  gained 
by  negotiation,  some  writers  do  not  reckon  it  in  the 
number  of  crusades.  It  is  usually,  however,  called  the 
sixth  crusade. 

A  seventh  crusade  was  proclaimed  in  1245.  Jeru- 
salem was  again  in  the  hands  of  the  Egyptians.  This 
crusade,  it  is  said,  grew  out  of  a  great  Mongol  move- 
ment that  terrified  the  world  in  the  thirteenth  century, 

*  Gregory  IX. 


236  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Christians  and  Mussulmans  now  leagued  together 
against  the  common  enemy.  Acre  had  now  become 
the  refuge  of  the  Christians,  and  was  the  only 
important  place  left  of  all  their  former  possessions  in 
Palestine. 

Louis  IX.,  St.  Louis  of  France,  was  the  leader  of 
the  seventh  crusade.  A  large  army  assembled  at  Cy- 
prus. The  English  joined  it  there  under  the  command 
of  Edward,*  prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  Edward  L  of 
England.  After  much  delay  they  went  to  Egypt. 
Louis  had  some  success  at  first,  having  captured  Dam-' 
ietta,  a  strong  city  of  Egypt,  but  disasters  dire  soon 
followed.  The  heroic  king  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
after  spending  four  years  in  Palestine,  an  immense  sum 
of  money  was  paid  for  his  ransom,  and  he  returned  to 
France  with  a  few  followers  in  1254.  Great,  indeed, 
was  the  cost  of  blood  and  treasure  paid  for  the  tem- 
porary victories  and  uncertain  tenure  by  which  they 
held  the  holy  places. 

Louis  renewed  the  war  in  1269,  as  he  supposed  he 
had  not  yet  satisfied  his  solemn  vow  to  God.  He  died 
at  Tunis,  in  1270,  of  a  pestilence  which  swept  off  the 
greater  part  of  his  forces. 

In  1 29 1,  by  the  capture  o{  Ptolemais  by  the  Moham- 
medans, the  empire  of  the  Latins  in  the  East  became 
extinct. 

The  loss  of  Palestine  was  attributed  far  more  to  the 
disunion  of  the  Christians  than  to  the  valor  of  the 
enemy.  There  was  much  profligacy  among  those  who 
called  themselves  Christ's  soldiers,  and  there  was  much 
ignorance  and  obstinacy  among  the  papal  legates,  who 

*  Edward  was  two  years  in  Palestine.     His  feats  of  valor,  according 
to  Gibbon,  were  as  great  as  those  of  his  uncle,  Richard  I. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  23/ 

often  thwarted  the  well-planned  measures  of  the  heroic 
and  the  true. 

With  Gregory  X.  the  crusades  ended,  one  hundred 
and  seventy-seven  years  from  the  time  the  first  had 
been  preached.  The  king  of  Jerusalem,  the  patriarch, 
and  the  great  master  of  the  Hospital  escaped  to  Cyprus. 
Many  thousands  at  the  last  storming  of  Acre  were 
slain  with  the  sword  ;  some  perished  on  the  scaffold. 
The  churches  and  fortifications  of  the  Latin  cities  were 
demolished.  Silence  reigned  upon  the  coast  which  had 
so  long  resounded  "  with  the  ivorld' s  debate.'' 


238  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

END  OF  THE  CRUSADES. LOUIS  IX. 

The  crusades  began  at  the  close  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury and  lasted  through  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth. 
Until  the  war  for  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem,  Europe 
had  never  been  moved  by  a  common  sentiment,  nor 
acted  in  a  common  cause. 

"The  principal  effect  of  the  crusades,"  says  Guizot, 
' '  was  their  tendency  to  the  emancipation  of  the  mind  and 
a  decided  progress  towards  liberal  ideas.  With  Greg- 
ory expired  the  crusades  !  For  nearly  two  centuries 
these  wars  had  connected  as  a  principle  of  union  the 
countries  of  Western  Asia  with  Europe.  This  tie  was 
broken.  No  longer  could  the  Pope  claim  a  title  to  ex- 
act a  tribute  from  a  vassal  world.  The  high  tides  of 
the  Papacy  began  to  ebb  in  1303.  The  last  convulsive 
effort  for  the  world's  dominion  was  made  by  Boniface 
VIII.      It  ended  in  the  captivity  of  Avignon. 

For  seventy  years  Rome  was  deprived  of  the  pres- 
ence of  her  chief  bishop.  Avignon  was  their  place  of 
exile.  After  the  death  of  Gregory  X.  three  successive 
Popes  passed  away  in  three  years  —  Innocent  V., 
Hadrian  V.,  and  John  XXII.  The  last  was  killed  by 
the  falling  of  a  roof  of  a  noble  chamber,  which  had 
been  erected  specially  for  him.  We  have  spoken  of 
two  crusading  expeditions  of  the  good  Louis  IX.,  of 
France.  There  was  an  interval  of  twenty  years  be- 
tween the  two  visits  of  Louis  to  the  East.     He  spent 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  239 

this  time  in  improving  the  condition  of  the  Gallican  State 
and  church.  Louis,  assisted  by  the  lawyers  of  France, 
issued  an  edict  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  This 
edict  limited  the  power  of  the  clergy,  in  denying  to  the 
Court  of  Rome  the  power  of  ecclesiastical  taxation  ;  also 
limiting  their  interference  in  the  election  of  the  clergy. 
This  Pragmatic  Sanction  became  a  charter  of  independ- 
ence to  the  Gallican  Church.  Among  the  dearest  ob- 
jects of  St.  Louis  was  the  reformation  of  the  clergy. 
The  high  religiousness  of  this  king,  together  with  the 
unsettled  state  of  the  Papal  hierarchy,  enabled  him  to 
promulgate  this  charter  of  liberty  without  disturbance. 

Henry  II.  of  England  had  labored  in  the  twelfth 
century  to  achieve  a  similar  result,  but  he  had  to  con- 
tend with  a  most  formidable  opjJonent  in  Thomas  a 
Becket,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Henry's  solicitude 
was  not  on  account  of  the  corrupt  lives  of  the  clergy, 
but  his  anxiety  was  directed  to  the  curtailment  of  their 
power.  In  the  Council  of  Clarendon,  a.  d.  1164, 
articles  were  drawn  up  by  the  king  and  ratified  in  a  full 
assembly  of  the  great  lords,  barons,  and  prelates, 
wherein  the  prerogatives  of  the  bishops  and  clergy 
were  circumscribed  within  narrower  limits,  and  the 
regal  power  in  respect  to  the  clergy  more  accurately 
defined.  By  these  articles  the  clergy  were  made  amen- 
able to  the  laws  of  the  land,  if  they  were  guilty  of 
crime,  and  as  liable  to  punishment  as  laymen. 

There  were  many  other  points  discussed  at  this 
council,  all  tending  to  show  that  the  king,  and  not  the 
priest,  should  govern  the  State  in  England.  Becket 
refused  to  submit  to  these  regulations,  pretending  that 
they  were  injurious  to  the  divine  rights  of  the  church  at 
large,  and  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs.     Becket,  as  Chancel- 


240  ANxNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

lor  of  England,  had  administered  his  high  office  with 
great  ability,  living,  however,  in  great  luxury  and  os- 
tentation. When  he  was  afterwards  made  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  he  renounced  the  vain  pomp  of  the 
world,  and  living  as  an  ascetic  he  induced  the  people 
to  believe  that  he  was  possessed  of  great  sanctity  and 
holiness.  He  refused  to  sign  the  constitution  of  Clar- 
endon. He  fled  to  Avignon,  to  Alexander  HI.,  who 
was  an  exile  there. 

Becket  returned  to  England,  but  was  still  inflexi- 
ble in  his  opposition  to  the  salutary  laws  enacted  at 
Clarendon.  This  contest  of  Becket  was  a  struggle  for 
power.  Henry  H.  had  kingly  qualities.  He  was 
chivalrous  and  brave,  but  passionate,  lustful,  and  some- 
times cruel.  But  tnrough  all  this  trouble  between  Jhe 
king  and  Becket  the  Archbishop  utters  no  warning 
voice  against  the  vices  of  Henry  and  his  infractions  of 
the  moral  law,  but  complains  loudly  of  the  king's  dis- 
obedience to  the  hierarchy.  The  tragical  death  of 
Becket  is  well  known.  Henry  was  annoyed  with  the 
dogmatism  of  this  prelate  and  his  interference  with  the 
affairs  of  the  State.  In  hasty  passion  he  cried  out, 
"  Will  no  one  rid  me  of  this  turbulent  rnan  ?  "  Some 
servile  courtiers  heard  his  rash  words.  Hoping  for  re- 
ward, they  secretly  set  out  for  Canterbury.  These 
ruffians  slew  the  prelate  at  the  foot  of  the  altar. 
Becket  had  fled  thither,  hoping  that  the  sanctity  of  the 
place  would  protect  him.  But  these  degraded  ones 
were  dead  to  any  such  influence.  The  king  was  over- 
come with  remorse  when  he  heard  of  the  deed.  He 
went  to  Canterbury  and  submitted  to  a  scourging  on 
kis  body,  as  a  penance  for  the  sin  of  his  soul.  He  could 
not  have  given  to  man  an  evidence  of  more  bitter  re- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  24 1 

pentance.  Was  it  acceptable  to  God  ?  It  is  said  the 
wretched  assassins  fled  in  abject  fear  to  the  Pope,  and 
obtained  absolution  on  condition  of  perpetual  exile. 
Who  can  forgive  sins  but  God  alone  ?  "The  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ  cleanseth  from  all  sin."  Christ,  the  High 
Priest,  has  given  authority  to  his  ministers  to  declare 
forgiveness  of  sins  to"all  who,  by  repentance  and  faith, 
turn  to  him.  A  declaration  of  absolution  on  the  con- 
ditions of  true  faith  and  penitence  may  give,  and  has 
given,  comfort  to  souls  distressed  on  account  of  sin. 
But  in  a  wilderness,  in  every  place  and  nation  with- 
out priest  or  altar  or  audible  voice,  the  offering  of  a 
contrite  heart  will  be  accepted  and  absolved.  This 
absoliitimi  rests  upon  the  word  of  God,  that  can  not  be 
broken.  Nevertheless,  Christ  did  appoint  special  min- 
isters of  his  word  to  administer  consolation  to  his  dis- 
ciples when  he  had  ascended  to  his  father.  Becket  was 
murdered  in  the  year  1170.  He  was  enrolled,  as  we 
have  said,  among  the  martyrs  and  glorified  saints. 

Note  on  Becket's  Tomb  at  Canterbury. — The  shrine  of  Becket 
was  for  three  centuries  a  centre  of  reverence  and  adoration,  not  only 
to  the  English,  but  to  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  in  the 
twelfth  century  that  the  relics  of  the  dead  bodies  of  those  esteemed  to 
be  saints  were  held  in  the  highest  reverence.  Multitudes  of  people 
and  the  proudest  monarchs  journeyed  to  Canterbury  with  votive  ofter- 
ings  of  gold  and  jewels.  In  1370  the  spirit  of  Sudbury,  Bishop  of 
London,  was  stirred  within  him  when  he  saw  blind  devotees  journey- 
ing to  the  shrine  of  Becket.  He  remonstrated  with  the  people  on  the 
"mischievous  superstition,"  but  some  of  them  hurled  imprecations 
against  him.  In  1 5 13,  at  the  dawn  of  the  reformation,  Erasmus  and 
Colet  visited  this  famous  shrine.  The  treasures  amassed  on  this  altar 
were  enormous.  They  were  filled  with  disgust  and  contempt  at  the 
idolatry  they  witnessed.  In  1538  this  jeweled  shrine,  this  hold  of  su. 
perstition  was  destroyed  by  the  order  of  Cranmer.  It  is  said  that 
Mary  Tudor,  during  her  reign  of  five  years,  wore  upon  her  breast  the 
most  precious  gem  taken  from  this  famous  shrine. 


242  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Numerous  pilgrimages  were  made  to  Canterbury, 
the  place  of  his  burial.  Monarchs  from  France  and 
Germany,  at  different  periods,  prostrated  themselves  on 
the  pavement  that  covered  the  bones  of  St.  Thomas  a 
Becket.  There  is  a  vulgar  superstition  among  kings  as 
among  other  men.  The  honest  voice  of  Wickliffe  de-. 
nounced  this  mummery  with  much  effect.  So  gorgeous 
were  the  decorations  of  art,  so  resplendent  the  jeweled 
memorials  that  past  centuries  had  gathered  round  this 
tomb,  that  some  lovers  of  the  beautiful  in  art,  even 
Dean  Stanley  in  his  "Notes  on  Canterbury,"  seemed 
almost  inclined  to  drop  a  tear  on  the  now  vacant  places. 
In  his  own  eloquent  words  he  says,  "It  is  true  that 
reverence  for  the  dead  ought  never  to  stand  in  the  way 
of  the  living,  that  when  any  evil  is  avoided,  or  any 
good  attained  by  destroying  old  recollections,  no  his- 
torical or  antiquarian  tenderness  can  be  pleaded  for 
their  preservation.  No  great  institution  perishes  with- 
out cause." 

Alexander  III.,  the  same  Pope  to  whom  Becket 
had  fled  for  refuge,  deprived  bishops  and  councils  of 
the  right  of  designating  who  should  be  worshiped  as 
saints.  He  determined  that  canonization  should  be  de- 
cided solely  by  the  '  Pontiff.  Alexander  III.  also 
claimed  the  right  of  creating  kings.  This  power  had 
been  claimed  by  the  Popes  since  the  time  of  Hilde- 
brand,  but  Alexander  was  the  first  Pope  that  actually 
used  this  power.  At  this  time  the  election  of  Popes 
by  cardinals  assumed  the  forms  they  still  retain.  In  " 
the  same  century  that  Becket  lived  in  England,  Arnold, 
of  Brescia  lived  in  Italy.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  fa- 
mous Abelard.  Arnold  was  a  man  of  learning  and  pure 
morals.    Arnold  attempted,  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  243 

century,  a  civil  and  ecclesiastical  revolution  in  Italy.  He 
saw  th  evils  that  arose  from  the  vast  riches  of  the  clergy. 
He  thought  that  the  interests  of  the  Church  required  that 
they  should  be  deprived  of  many  prerogatives.  He 
was  persecuted  by  St.  Bernard,  who  probably  misun- 
derstood him  regarding  him  as  a  dangerous  man. 
Adrian  IV.  so  feared  the  spread  of  his  doctrines  that 
he- sent  him,  into  exile.  The  people  sustained  him. 
Frederick  I.  delivered  him  up  to  the  pope.  He  was 
executed,  his  body  was  burned,  and  his  ashes  cast  into 
the  sea  lest  the  people  should  venerate  his  corpse. 
But  of  all  the  leaders  and  sects  that  arose  in  this  cen- 
tury, none  obtained  so  great  reputation  for  probity  and 
innocence  as  the  Waldenses.  Peter  Waldo  did  not 
aim  to  inculcate  new  articles  of  faith,  but  he  strove  to 
restore  the  Church  to  its  primitive  form,  to  purify  the 
morals  of  the  clergy,  and  to  restore  the  apostolic  sim- 
plicity which  they  had  learned  from  the  words  of 
Christ.  The  Waldensian  Church  was  governed  by 
bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons,  for  they  supposed 
these  orders  were  instituted  by  Christ  or  his  apostles. 
They  taught,  as  our  modern  Protestants  do,  that  in  the 
time  of  Constantime  the  Great,  the  Church  began  to 
degenerate  from  her  original  sanctity.  They  denied 
the  supremacy  of  the  bishop  of  Rome.  Their  doctrines 
seem  to  hkve  been  almost  identical  with  the  teachings 
of  Claude,  bishop  of  Turin,  who  lived  in  the  ninth 
century,  and  of  many  others  all  down  the  ages,  whose 
names  are  not  conspicuous  in  the  calendars  of  earth, 
but  whose  registry  is  in  heaven. 

In  the  fourth  council  of  the  Lateran,  a.  d.  121 5, 
Innocent  III.  published  three  decrees  which  contained 
enactments  not  only  to  increase  the  power  of  the  pon- 


244  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

tiffs,  but  attempted  to  widen  the  religious  system  by 
adding  new  doctrines,  or  as  they  are  called,  articles  of 
faith.  Previous  to  this  time  there  had  been  various 
opinions  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  body  and  blood 
of  our  Lord  are  present  in  the  Eucharist.  No  public 
decision  had  as  yet  *  defined  what  must  be  held  and 
taught  on  this  point.  Innocent  pronounced  at  this 
fourth  council  of  the  Lateran  that  view  to  be  the  true 
one,  which  is  now  universal  in  the  Rom^n  Church. 
He  consecrated  also  the  hitherto  unknown  term  of 
transubstantiation.  He  required  it  to  be  held  as  an 
article  of  faith  that  all  are  bound  to  confess  to  a  priest. 
Confession  of  sin  was  held  to  be  a  duty  ;  but  until  now 
every  one  was  at  liberty  to  confess  mentally  to  God 
alone,  or  orally  to  a  priest. 

The  reception  of  both  these  dogmas  was  enforced 
simply  upon  the  injunction  of  Innocent  III.  In  1260 
a  strange  fanatical  sect  arose,  called  Flagellants. 
These  deluded  people  ran  about  the  cities  and  town 
with  whips  in  their  hands  lacerating  their  almost  naked 
bodies,  that  by  this  voluntary  punishment  they 
might  obtain  pardon  for  their  sins.  These  extreme 
views  had  doubtless  arisen  from  the  teachings  they  had 
received  from  the  monks  of  the  mendicant  orders. 
Their  turbulence  and  extravagance  soon  produced  dis- 
gust, and  both  emperors  and  pontiffs  issued  decrees  to 
stop  this  religious  or  superstitious  frenzy. 

A  strange  controversy  filled  all  the  schools  of  Eu- 
rope for  many  centuries.  The  respective  disputants 
were  called  Nominalists  and  Realists.  There  was  also 
a  third  called  Conceptualists,  an  intermediate  doctrine 
between   the  two.     So  very  metaphysical   were   these 

•Thirteenth  century. 


ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  245 

points  of  controversy  that  we  shall  merely  hint  at  the 
existence  of  the  controversy  and  some  of  its  conse- 
quences, without  attempting  definition. 

Some  maintained  that  general  ideas  are  tilings  that 
have  real  existence.  These  supported  their  opinions 
by  Plato  and  Boethius,  and  were  called  Realists. 
Nominalists,  on  the  contrary,  asserted  that  genera/ ideas 
are  nothing  more  than  words  or  names.  These  quoted 
the  authority  of  Aristotle.  Its  origin,  says  Mosheim, 
some  trace  back  to  the  controversy  with  Berengarius 
on  the  Lord's  Supper,  because  the  opinions  of  the 
Nominalists  might  be  used  verf  conveniently  in  defend- 
ing the  doctrine  of  Berengarius  respecting  that  sacra- 
ment. The  germ  of  this  scholastic  controversy  is 
doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  opposition  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle  concerning  the  nature  of  ideas.  The  elo- 
quent Abelard  *  was  a  Nominalist. 

Albert  Magnus  and  his  disciple,  the  famous  Thomas 
Aquinas,  were  Realists.  Roscellinus,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  in  applying  his  Nominalist  doctrines  to  theol- 
ogy, was  accused  of  tritheism,  since  by  denying  the 
validity  of  abstract  ideas  he  could  respresent  the  Trin- 
ity as  only  a  nominal  and  unreal  unity.  He  was  con- 
demned by  the  synod  of  Soissons  in  1092,  and  obliged 
to  retract  his  assertions.  Nominalism  from  this  time 
fell  under  the  suspicion  of  the  church.  Anselm,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  was  its  chief  opponent.  ' '  John, 
of  Salisbury,  wrote  that  there  had  been  more  time  con- 
sumed in  the  discussion  of  these  metaphysical  points  than 


*  Abelard  has  been  accused  of  heresy  in  doctrine.  He  was  prob- 
ably a  heretic  in  morals. 

t  Nominalists  claimed  that  there  was  no  such  thing  as  an  abstract 
animal  or  tree  in  general,  but  individual  objects. 


246  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  Caesars  had  employed  in  the  conquest  of  the  world ; 
that  the  riches  of  Croesus  had  been  exhausted  upon  it, 
and  that  the  contending  parties,  having  spent  their 
whole  lives  upon  this  point,  could  not  determine  it  to 
their  satisfaction,  nor  could  they  find  in  the  labyrinths 
of  science,  where  they  so  long  groped,  that  it  was 
worth  the  pains  they  had  taken." 

So  shadowy,  so  intangible  and  unsubstantial  was 
this  question  of  dialectics !  Yet  in  this  long  quest 
these  learned,  ingenious  intellects  doubtless  found 
many  grains  of  golden  truth,  amid  the  depths  of  dross 
they  attempted  to  sound. 

The  era  of  schoolmen  and  mystics  was  a  remarka- 
ble era  in  medieval  times.  Bonaventura,  a  Franciscan 
of  Lyons,  in  France,  vvas  a  remarkable  man.  He, 
like  Aquinas,  was  a  celebrated  lecturer.  The  thirteenth 
century  boasted  of  many  men  of  inquisitive  minds, 
acute  understanding,  and  uncommon  penetration  in 
regard  to  abstruse  and  difficult  subjects,  though  they, 
assented  to  various  things  that  have  since  been  proved 
incorrect.  The  great  mistake  some  of  these  learned 
doctors  made  was  an  attempt  to  examine  religious  sub- 
jects by  the  powers  of  reason  and  human  sagacity, 
rather  than  by  the  Scriptures.  Some  pious  men  warned 
the  theologians  of  Paris  to  avoid  the  subtleties  of  phil- 
osophy, and  to  teach  the  doctrines  of  Christ  by  his 
word. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  247 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

"Sir,  didst  not  thou  sow  good  seed,  in  thy  field?     Whence  then 
hath  it  tares  ?   And  he  said.  An  enemy  hath  done  this  "  (Matt.  xiii.  27). 

It  is  not  remarkable  that  after  transubstant*ation 
began  to  be  received  by  the  Church  (though  with  many 
dissentients  * ),  that  the  consecrated  bread  of  the 
Eucharist  should  receive  divine  honors.  Splendid  cas- 
kets containing  this  bread,  or  the  host,  as  it  was  called, 
were  carried  from  house  to  house. 

This  superstition  reached  its  zenith,  when  the  festi- 
val of  the  body  of  Christ  was  instituted.  A  mm  of 
Liege  declared  that  she  had  been  instructed  that  an 
annual  festival  should  be  kept  in  honor  of  the  Holy 
Supper,  or  rather  of  the  body  of  Christ.  Few  persons 
believed  in  her  vision.  Yet  such  was  the  superstition 
of  the  'time,  and  tJie  power  of  the  hierarchy,  that 
Robert,  a  bishop  of  Liege,  affecting  to  believe  in  this 
vision,  ordered  this  new  festal  day  in  1246.  But  it  was 
not  generally  observed  until  Urban  IV.,  in  1264,  im- 
posed the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi  on  the  whole 
church.  Clement  v.,  in  131 1,  confirmed  the  edict  of 
Urban  at  the  council  of  Vienna. 

We  suppose  the  observance  of  this  festival  of  Cor- 
pus Christi  has  done  no  special  harm,  but  we  are 
simply  attempting  to  relate  ho%v  many  superstitious 
ceremonies  crept  into  the  Church  without  any  authority 

*  Scotus  strongly  opposed  this  doctrine  in  the  ninth  century,  and 
the  famous  Beranger  of  Tours  in  the  eleventh  century. 


248  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

from  the  Chart,*  by  which  they  professed  to  be  guided, 
and  without  the  tradition  or  example  of  the  primitive 
Church. 

Boniface  VIII.  added  the  year  of  Jubilee  to  the 
ceremonies  of  the  Church  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
This  pontiff  declared  to  all  Christendom  that  all  who 
should  visit  the  temples  of  Peter  and  Paul  at  Rome, 
at  the  close  of  each  centennial  year,t  should  have 
plenary  forgiveness  of  their  sins.  When  his  successors 
found  that  it  brought  much  gain  to  the  Church  of 
Rome,  they  shortened  the  period,  first  to  half  a  cen- 
tury, then  to  thirty-three  years,  and  lastly  to  twenty- 
five  years,  continuing,  as  we  believe,  to  the  present 
time. 

A  humiliating  succession  of  false  doctrines  had  now 
been  brought  in  the  Church  —  Mariolatry  ;  the  invoca- 
tion of  saints  ;  the  great  value  of  virginity ;  the  work- 
ing of  miracles  by  relics  ;  the  satisfaction  of  sins  by 
gifts  to  the  clergy ;  transubstantiation  ;  the  virtue  of 
pilgrimages  ;  the  forbidding  of  the  Bible  to  the  laity. 

In  speaking  of  the  false  tenets  that  had  been 
adopted  by  the  Church,  or  at  least  by  many  of  its 
teachers,  during  the  dark  ages,  an  ingenious  writer  % 
supposes  that  it  was  due  to  a  deterioration  of  race. 
"  The  old  Roman  element,"  he  says,  "  had  been  elim- 
inated through  the  republican  and  imperial  wars,  and 
also  through  the  slave  system.  The  half-breeds,  of 
which  the  Peninsula  was  full,  degenerated  more  and 
more.  Blood  degeneration  implies  thought  degenera- 
tion. The  early  bishops  of  Rome  were  men  of  Roman 
blood  and  Roman  heroism,  but  the  later  pontiffs,  whose 

*  The  New  Testament.  t  A  centennial  year  was  approaching. 

+  Mr.  Draper. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  249 

lives  were  so  infamous,  and  thoughts  so  base,  were 
engendered  of  half-breeds.  Ideas  and  dogmas,  that 
would  not  have  been  tolerated  in  the  old  Roman  race, 
found  acceptance  in  the  festering  mass  of  the  new 
Italian  population." 

This  is  indeed  a  subtle  question  ;  the  physiological 
state,  has,  as  he  suggests,  doubtless  some  connection 
with  the  ethnical  element,  but  when  it  is  remembered, 
that  the  old  Roman  race  previous  to  Christianity  em- 
braced the  most  absurd  superstitions,  we  must  look  to 
a  more  obvious  cause  for  this  adulteration  of  doctrine. 
The  false  views  of  religion  that  crept  into  the  Church 
were  mainly  due  to  the  ignorance  of  the  people  of  the 
written  word  of  God,  and  also  to  the  great  power  and 
wealth  that  were  lodged  in  the  hands  of  fallible  men. 
Some  of  these  men,  aspiring  to  be  "Lords  over  God's 
heritage,"  brought  evil  of  every  kind  into  the  Church 
that  Christ  and  His  apostles  had  established.  With 
many  attendant  evils,  however,  there  was  Christian 
truth  at  the  foundation  that  could  not  pass  away, 
giving  rise  to  many  blessings,  in  spite  of  the  degrada- 
tion and  wickedness  of  man.  The  civil  law  had  been 
greatly  improved  by  Christianity.  The  idea  of  personal 
moral  accountibility  was  more  precise  than  formerly. 
The  sentiment  of  charity  was  exemplified  not  only  in 
individual  acts,  but  in  permanent  establishments  for  the 
relief  of  affliction,  and  the  spread  of  knowledge  and 
truth  as  they  held  it.  Some  of  the  ecclesiastics  who 
had  risen  from  the  humblest  ranks,  true  to  their  demo- 
cratic instincts,  were  inflexible-  supporters  of  right 
against  might. 

Rome,  from  her  central  seat,  aspired  to  be  all-seeing 
and  take  in  a  hemisphere  at  a  glance.      Her  influence 


250      ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

touched  the  king  in  his  palace  and  the  beggar  at  the 
monastery  gate.  Every  one  received  their  names  at 
her  altar ;  her  bells  chimed  at  the  marriage  or  tolled  at 
the  funeral.  Her  prayers  claimed  a  power  to  give  repose 
to  the  souls  of  the  dead.  Thus  did  a'chain  of  sweet 
influences  bind  the  sons  and  daughters  of  the  Church. 

Christian  funerals  were  sometimes  celebrated  with 
magnificence  as  early  as  the  fourth  century.  Jerome 
speaks  of  the  funeral  of  Fabiola  as  comparing  in  splen- 
dor vvith  the  triumphs  of  Roman  generals.  This  Roman 
lady  had  spent  a  large  fortune  in  alms-giving,  and  had 
founded  the  first  hospital  at  Rome. 

As  regards  the  sacred  and  consoling  services  of  the 
Church  at  the  baptism,  the  bridal,  or  the  tomb,  these 
things  are  as  true  of  Protestant  Christianity  as  they  ever 
were  or  are  of  Roman  Christianity.  But  we  must 
say  of  the  Church  of  the  Dark  Ages  (as  it  is  called), 
that  while  it  was  often  oppressive  and  exacting  to  the 
rich  and  powerful,  to  the  poor  and  penitent  it  was 
usually  ' '  as  the  shadow  of  a  great  rock  in  a  weary  land. " 

In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  the  pon- 
tiffs had  fierce  conflicts  with  heretics,  as  the  Romish 
Church  called  those  who  questioned  their  authority,  or 
Vrho  rejected  their  dogmas  —  dogmas  or  opinions  not 
taught  in  Scripture,  but  imposed  on  their  consciences 
by  the  arbritrary  power  of  sotne  of  the  popes. 

The  Albigenses.  the  Waldenses  and  other  sectaries, 
had.  spread  themselves  over  the  valleys  among  the 
Alps,  Southern  France,  Germany  and  portions  of 
Spain,  threatening  danger  to  the  Roman  domination. 
These  people  were  remarkable  for  their  spirited  preach- 
ing. Preaching  among  the  regular  clergy  had  become 
almost  obsolete  until   the   rise  of  the  Dominican  and 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  2$  I 

Franciscan  clergy,  who,  seeing  the  success  of  the 
Albigenses,  became  zealous  preachers  from  country  to 
country. 

The  monks  had  kept  through  very  troubled  times 
of  social  life  the  best  pattern  of  religious  devotion ; 
they  had  executed  wonders  in  illuminating  and  preserv- 
ing manuscripts ;  but  there  came  a  time,*  especially  in 
England,  when  their  rules  fell  into  neglect  and  disuse. 
In  the  time  of  Wyckliffe  the  mendicant  monks  had 
become  objects  of  ridicule  and  scorn. 

Eyery  reader  of  Church  history  must  feel,  as  he 
comes  down  the  ages,  that,  despite  the  corruption  of 
the  clergy  and  the  ignorance  of  the  laity,  there  were 
some  loving  and  true  hearts  that  burned  with  a  desire 
to  open  the  Scriptures,  and  to  enlighten  the  people  as 
to  the  true  teaching  of  the  Word  of  God.  As  in  the 
days  of  Elijah  the  prophet  there  were  seven  thousand 
who  had  never  bowed  the  knee  to  Baal,  though  the 
prophet  blindly  supposed  he  was  the  only  true  wor- 
shiper in  the  land  of  Israel,  so  in  Christian  Europe,  in 
the  fourteent'i  century,  there  were  many  who  turned 
their  faces  heavenward,  and  who  sought  the  lips  of  the 
Priest  that  kept  knowledge. 

The  power  at  Rome  did  sometimes  repress  an 
injustice,  but  in  calling  so  many  cases  to  Rome  for 
decision,  she  deprived  in  this  way  the  national  churches 
and  States  of  their  rights  of  self-government.  The 
monasteries  sometimes  desired  exemption  from  the 
bishops  of  their  dioceses,  and  were  willing  to  pay  the 
papal  court  to  decide  for  them  according  to  their 
wishes.     The  papacy  became  the  seat  during  the  four- 

'   In  the  fourteenth  century. 


252  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

teenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  of  enormous  simony, 
'  from  the  decision  of  causes,  from  indulgences,  and 
from  selling  the  offices  of  the  Church.  The  papacy 
sunk  into  a  slough  so  deep,  that  she  could  not  of  herself 
abate  them — some  futile  efforts  were  made.  The  riches 
of  the  papal  court  were  to  many  as  the  breath  of  life. 
Some  of  the  popes  saw  and  felt  the  need  of  reform,  but 
during  the  few  years  they  sat  in  the  papal  chair,  they 
were  unable  to  cope  with  the  tremendous  issues. 

The  scholar  and  the  mystic  were  united  in  some  of 
the  great  characters  of  this  period.  Eckart,  a  Domini- 
can, was  a  leader  among  the  mystics.  As  scholasticism 
declined,  mysticism  increased.  Thomas  a  Kempis, 
whose  writings  are  well  known  in  modern  days,  was  a 
famous  mystic.  In  1324  the  terrible  disease  black 
death  stalked  abroad,  in  seven  years  sweeping  away 
two-thirds  of  the  population.  There  was  something  in 
mysticism  that  seemed  adapted  to  such  awful  periods. 
There  was,  too,  at  this  time  a  great  conflict  between 
Church  and  Empire. 

But  religion,  as  we  have  already  said,  found  a 
sanctuary  in  some  devout  hearts.  In  the  darkest 
periods,  our  Lord  has  had  a  Church  upon  earth,  an 
invisible  within  the  visible.  There  were  many  names, 
doubtless,  written  in  the  Lamb's  Book  of  Life  that  were 
not  registered  or  canonized  upon  earth.  The  great 
head  of  the  church,  though  not  so  manifestly,  was  car- 
rying forward  then,  as  now,  a  work  of  grace  and  power 
in  the  hearts  of  his  people. 

The  first  teacher  who  shook  with  lasting  effect  the 
power  of  the  hierarchy,  was  John  Wycliffe,  of  Lutter- 
worth, England,  in  1348.  The  Teutonic  constitution 
of  England,  as  we  have  said  in  another  place,  had  not 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  253 

only  restrained  the  Norman  power  of  the  crown,  but 
the  Latin  despotism  of  the  papacy.  In  the  days  of 
Becket,  the  clergy  had  striven  to  escape  trial  for  crimes 
in  the  civil  courts,  but  in  the  time  of  Wycliffe,  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half  later,  the  hand  of  the  civil  law  did  not 
scruple  to  arrest  an  ecclesiastic  accused  of  crime.  In  the 
reign  of  the  feeble  Edward  II.,  Clement  V.  commanded 
the  persecution  and  ruin  of  the  Templars.  With  some 
opposition  the  mandate  was  ultimately  obeyed.  The 
papal  power  exercised  in  England  varied  with  the  abil- 
ity of  the  monarch  ;  this  was  manifested  in  the  reign 
of  the  cowardly  King  John,  who  became  a  vassal  to  the 
pope,  A.  D.  12 1 5. 

John  Wycliffe  was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1324,  just 
before  the  accession  of  Edward  III.  to  the  throne  of 
England.  England  was  at  this  period  a  land  of  schools ; 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  were  in  high  repute — they  were 
then  thronged  with  thousands,  instead  of  the  hundreds 
who  now  enter  their  classic  halls.  Wycliffe  became  a 
student  at  Oxford.  These  instutions  of  learning  were 
open  to  the  humble ;  this  was  an  element  of  strength 
to  the  Church  in  the  fourteenth  century^  as  it  is  a 
source  of  strength  to  the  Romanists  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  most  humble  were  brought  through 
their  colleges  of  learning,  to  take  rank  with  the  highest 
in  the  realm.  Arms,  and  the  Church,  were  then  the 
only  two  professions.  The  lawyers  and  physicians  of 
this  day  were  ecclesiastics. 

John  Wycliffe  was  admitted  to  Queen's  College, 
Oxford.  This  college  had  just  been  founded  by  Phil- 
ippa,  the  noble  wife  of  Edward  III.  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  thirteenth  century  Roger  Bacon  had  been  a 
lecturer  at  Oxford.      Bacon  was  esteemed  the  father  of 


254  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

English  science.  His  researches  opened  the  way  for 
many  modern  discoveries,  especially  the  use  of  gun- 
powder, which  he  is  said  first  to  have  made. 


Note. — From  the  days  of  Csedmon  in  the  seventh  centuiy,  portions 
of  Scripture  had  been  translated  into  the  vulgar  tongue,  but  they  were 
fragmentary  and  had  fallen  out  of  use.  Wycliffe  determined  to  trans- 
late the  wkok  Bible,  and  send  it  through  the  land.  Like  the  apostles, 
he  put  the  ministry  of  the  Word,  not  the  Sacraments,  in  front.  In  the 
Eucharist,  the  reformers  of  Wycliffe's  day  saw  imchanged  the  bread  and 
wine,  but  they  believed  Christ's  body  and  blood  were  truly  present. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  255 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

WVCLIFFE  CONTINUED — HUSS. 

Wyclifife,  shortly  after  he  entered  Oxford,  removed 
to  Merton,  the  older,  wealthier  and  more  famous  of  the 
Oxford  foundations.  Statesmen  and  prelates,  kings 
and  queens  had  founded  six  colleges  at  Oxford  for  poor 
scholars.  The  university  held  the  supreme  authority. 
There  were  also  some  halls  where  some  scholars  dwelt 
and  studied  under  the  ordinary  academic  discipline. 
There  must  have  been  a  renaissance  or  revival  of 
learning  in  England  as  well  as  in  Italy  in  the  early  part 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  Some  great  teachers  had 
preceded  Wyclifife  at  Merton,  such  as  William  of  Ock- 
ham,  whose  teachings  shattered  the  foundations  of 
Papal  supremacy ;  also  the  learned  Bradwardine,  who 
adopted  the  predestinarian  doctrines  of  Augustin. 

Wycliffe's  promotion  to  offices  of  high  trust  prove 
the  extent  and  depth  of  his  studies.  His  varied  erudi- 
tion, says  Milman,  is  probably  due  to  his  studies  at 
Oxford ;  but  his  mastery  over  the  vernacular  English, 
the  high  supremacy  which  he  vindicated  for  the  Script- 
ures, which,  by  great  toil,  he  promulgated  in  the  vulgar 
tongue,  these  were  his  own,  to  be  learned  iri  fio 
school.  These  were  to  be  attained  by  none  of  the  or- 
dinary courses  of  study.  As  Chaucer,  his  contempo- 
rary, was  the  father  of  English  poetry,  so  was  Wyclifife 
the  father  of  English  prose. 

When  Wyccliffe  was  first  summoned  to  appear  at 


256  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

St.  Paul's,  before  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  he 
was  accompanied  by  the  Duke  of  Lancaster,  John  of 
Gaunt,  as  he  was  usually  called,  the  son  of  Edward  III. 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  specific  charges  made  against 
Wycliffe  at  this  examination.  About  this  time  the 
king's  ministers  were  anxious  to  procure  a  sum  of 
money  which  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Pope's  bankers. 
They  applied  to  the  University  of  Oxford  for  legal 
sanction  to  obtain  this  money.  Wycliffe  was  employed 
by  these  ministers  to  give  his  opinion  as  to  the  r^ght  of 
possession.  Wycliffe  declared  boldly  that  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  nation  have  the  fifst  claim  to  all  moneys 
raised  within  the  realm.  Wycliffe  quoted  the  venerated 
name  of  St.  Bernard  as  autJiority.  Meanwhile  informa- 
tion of  the  opinions  of  Wycliffe  and  his  bold  advocacy 
of  them  reached  the  Papal  Court  at  Avignoii.  Gregory 
XI.  dispatched  three  bulls  to  Canterbury.  The  Pope 
demanded  that  his  opinions  should  be  examined,  and  if 
erroneous,  that  he  should  be  imprisoned  or  cited  to 
appear  before  him  (the  Pope)  at  Avignon.  His  man- 
dates were  coldly  received.  The  opinions  at  first  that 
were  censured  as  wrong,  entirely  related  to  the  ecclesi- 
astical power.  His  creed  was  not  as  yet  charged  with 
heresy. 

A  second  trial  came.  He  is  not  now  attended  by 
the  nobles,  but  by  the  common  people.  They  forced 
their  way  into  the  chapel,  and  by  violent  menaces  and 
gestures,  alarmed  the  prelates.  In  the  midst  of  this 
tumult  a  nobleman  entered,  and  in  the  name  of  the 
Princess  of  Wales,  now  at  the  head  of  the  administra- 
tion, forbade  further  proceedings. 

Wycliffe  drew  up  replies  to  some  of  the  charges  re- 
lating to  political  disputes  between  the  ecclesiastics  and 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  257 

the  State.  He  boldly  declared  that  church  property 
was  not  inalienable  if  not  applied  to  a  proper  use.  It 
may  be  forfeited,  and  under  certain  circumstances  the 
temporal  power  can  enforce  the  forfeiture.  He  taught 
that  the  spiritual  power  of  excommunication  and  abso- 
lution depend  for  their  validity  on  strict  conformity  to 
the  law  of  God.  Wycliffe  declares  himself  a  sincere 
churchman,  and  by  no  means  denies  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Church.  His  opinions  have  been  formed  from 
Holy  Scripture,*  and  he  is  ready  to  defend  them  to  the 
death. 

The  death  of  Gregory  XI.  stops  for  a  time  the 
prosecution  of  Wycliffe.  A  schism  follows  in  the 
Papacy.  Wycliffe  became  more  and  more  the  antag- 
onist of  the  hierarchy.  The  lower  clergy  reverenced 
him.  Oxford  did  not  repudiate  him.  He  organizes 
an  order,  who  travel  through  the  land,  preaching  some" 
times  in  the  churches  and  sometimes  in  the  highways 
and  market-places.  These  itinerant  teachers  supplanted 
the  mendicant  orders  in  popularity,  who  had  now 
fallen  from  their  high  estate.  The  gross  c  orruption  of 
the  begging  friars  in  the  days  of  Wcycliffe  drew  him 
into  a  controversy  with  them.  In  their  early  history 
these  Friars  had  been  estimable  and  devout.  They 
had  sunk  at  this  time  into  the  worst  repute.  The  itin- 
erants sent  out  by  Wychffe,  with  the  English  Bible  in 
their  hands,  presented  the  foundation  truths  of  the 
New  Testament  with  such  power,  that  the  depths  of 
the  soul  were  stirred  and  thrilled.  Many  of  these 
hearers  had  had  only  the  symbolic  teaching  of  the  rit- 
ual.    Others  were  without  any  instruction. 

'■■  And  the  teachings  of  holy  doctors. 


258  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

But  under  the  preaching  of  WycHffe  and  his  follow- 
ers "the  dry  bones  of  unbelief  and  ignorance"  were 
breathed  upon  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  as  in  the  days  of 
the  prophets.  He  sent  out  the  portions  of  the  English 
version  to  the  people  as  he  finished  them.  It  was  the 
bitter  complaint  of  one  of  Wycliffe's  adversaries  that 
laymen  and  women  who  could  read  were  better  ac- 
quainted with  the  Scriptures  than  some  of  the  lettered 
clergy. 

As  Wycliffe  advanced  Jn  his  studies  he  began  to 
question  not  only  the  power  of  the  Pope,  but  some  of 
the  doctrines  of  the  Church.  He  now  rejects  unequiv- 
ocally the  materialism  of  transubstantiation.  The 
Eucharist,  he  declares,  is  Christ's  body  and  blood, 
spiritually,  sacramentally ;  but  the  bread  and  wine  are 
not  changed.  They  co-exist  in  the  mind  of  the  be- 
liever. Wycliffe  was  summoned  to  appear  at  Grey 
Friars  before  Courtenay.  The  meek  and  moderate 
Sudbury,  the  predecessor  of  Courtenay,  had  been  mur- 
dered by  a  mob.  This  synod  was  called  together  to 
examine  for  the  third  time  into  the  doctrines  of  the 
great  preacher.  This  assembly  cunningl}'-  tried  to 
prove  Wycliffe  an  enemy  to  temporal  as  well  as  eccle- 
siastical authority.  Unfortunately  about  the  time  of 
this  trial  there  was  some  insurrection  and  disturbances, 
which  had  not  any  connection  with  the  teaching  of 
Wycliffe's  disciples.  These  troubles  evidently  arose 
from  excessive  taxation. 

The   famous    seditions   of  Wat    Tyler,    Jack   Straw 

Note. — The  |Council  at  Constance  condemned  the  books  of  Wy- 
cliffe to  be  burned.  His  bones  were  dug  up  after  his  honored  remains 
had  laid  under  the  choir  at  Lutterworth  forty-eight  years.  His  ashes 
were  thrown  into  the  nearest  river. — Geike. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  259 

and  others  occurred  about  this  time.  The  wars  of 
Edward  III.,  and  the  minority  of  Richard  II.,  caused 
much  pecuniary  pressure  and  financial  disturbance. 
The  wily  enemies  of  Wycliffe  tried  to  connect  the  new 
doctrines  with  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country, 
which  was  obviously  the  result  of  odious  and  unwise 
taxation.  Twenty-four  articles  of  Wycliffe  were  ar- 
raigned ;  ten  were  condemned.  Among  these  was  the 
denial  of  transubstantiation.  An  act  was  passed  by 
the  lords  and  promulgated  by  the  king,  that  all  the 
preachers  of  Wycliffe,  as  his  disciples  were  called, 
should  be  imprisoned,  that  they  might  answer  in  the 
bishop's  court.  This  was  the  first  statute  of  heresy 
ever  passed  in  the  realm  of  England.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  opinions  of  all  reformers  are  liable  to  exagger- 
ation. The  grand  courage  of  Wycliffe  enabled  him  to 
sustain  the  odium,  strengthened  as  he  was  by  the  sublime 
desire  of  enlightening  and  converting  the  souls  of  his 
fellow-men  Oxford  continued  to  be  the  centre  of  his 
influence.  Scholars  crowded  around  the  university 
pulpit,  while  the  Carmelites,  who  also  preached  at  Ox- 
ford were  compelled  to  declaim  to  empty  churches. 
Wycliffe,  when  summoned  to  appear  for  the  last  time, 
declined  to  appear.  No  special  notice  was  taken  of  his 
contumacy.  He  may  have  been  suffering  from  sick- 
ness. He  cast  back  upon  the  council  of  the  Grey 
Friars  the  calumnious  aspersions  with  which  they  had 
assaulted  him.  *  Wycliffe,  at  his  home  in  Lutterworth, 
and  in  the  villages  around  it,  was  a  bold  preacher  in 
the  vernacular  or  vulgar  tongue,  understood  by  the 
people ;   but    at   Oxford,    before    the   convocation,    his 


Milman's  Christianity. 


26o       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

speech  was  full  of  acuteness  and  subtility  and  logical 
versatility  ;  the  most  experienced  master  in  the  univer- 
sity. 

The  Augustinian  monks  publicly  promulgated  his 
condemnation  on  the  subject  of  the  Eucharist.  He 
was  unyielding  on  this  point.  When  he  received  his 
censure  he  was  sitting  in  the  professor's  chair.  With 
calm  pertinacity  he  said,  "  On  this  point  all  have  erred 
but  *  Berengarius. " 

Wycliffe  retired  unmolested  to  Lutterworth.  There 
was  as  yet  no  statute  in  England  for  the  burning  of 
heretics.  No  officer  in  England  would  have  obeyed 
the  mandate  of  the  church  without  legal  warrant. 
Wycliffe  died  in  1384.  The  austere  life  of  Wycliffe 
has  defied  calumny.  He  was  exemplary  in  his  whole 
conduct,  t 

Chaucer's  sympathy  with  Wycliffe  is  expressed  in 
his  praise  of  the  poor  parson,  who  followed  Christ's 
love  and  his  apostles,  before  he  taught  it  to  his  flock. . 
His  industry  was  wonderful.  The  number  of  his  tracts 
almost  baffles  calculation.  His  translation  of  the 
Scriptures,  in  parts,  was  a  prodigious  achievement. 
His  ideal  was  the  restoration  of  the  pure,  moral  and 
religious  supremacy  in  religion — refusing  to  separate 
the  weighty  matters  of  the  law  from  the  anise  and 
cumin. 

In   Wycliffe's   translation   of  the   Scriptures   is  laid- 


*  Berengarius  lived  in  the  eleventh  century.  He  appeared  before 
Hildebrand  to  be  examined  on  his  views.  He  was  not  condemned  by 
Gregory  VH.  In  his  controversies  with  Lanfranc  he  certainly  denied 
transubstantiation  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  his  precise  views,  as  he 
used  ambiguous  phrases. 

t  Thalheimer. 


ANNAtS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  26l 

the  foundation  of  Protestantism  ;  but  he  built  no  edi- 
fice, nor  created  any  new  sect,  but  (like  the  English 
reformers  in  the  sixteenth  centuy)  he  brushed  away 
many  of  the  webs  of  superstition  wherein  had  been 
hatched  dangerous  and  false  doctrines.  He  sought  to 
wipe  out  from  the  minds  of  his  disciples  many  of  the 
tenets  that  had  made  a  lodgment  in  the  church  in  dark, 
medieval  times,  such  as  pardons,  pilgrimages,  indul- 
gences, absolutions,  excommunications. 

"Teutonic  Christianity,"  says  Milman,  "waited 
more  than  two  centuries  for  a.  finished  creed,  such  as  the 
thirty-nine  articles  of  the  Church  of  England,  or  the 
Augsburg  Confession.  His  doctrines  (Wycliffe's), 
drawn  from  the  fountain  of  truth,  sank  into  the  hearts 
of  multitudes.  They  spread  into  Bohemia  and  kindled 
fires  of  martyrdom.  Wycliffe's  personal  influence  had 
affected  the  most  distinguished  personages  of  the  land. 
John  of  Gaunt,  and  the  widow  of  the  Black  Prince, 
and  especially  Anne,  of  Bohemia,  the  wife  of  Richard 
II.,  were  his  disciples  and  friends.  This  Bohemian 
princess  was  called  the  good  Queen  Anne,  and  seems 
to  have  been  truly  religious.  She  had  the  gospels  in 
Bohemian,  English  and  Latin.  It  was  through  the  at- 
tendants of  the  Queen  that  an  intimate  religious  con- 
nection grew  up  between  Bohemia  and  England. 
Wycliffe  was  the  morning  star  of  the  reformation  for 
Bohemia  as  well  as  England. 

Many  knights  of  property  became  disciples  of 
Wycliffe.  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  Lord  Cobham,  was  their 
head.  His  whole  soul  was  devoted  to  religion.  His 
enemies  accuse  him  of  treasonable  designs  against  the 
government.  Henry  IV.,  in  order  to  strengthen  his 
usurped  power,   became  subservient  to  the  hierarchy. 


262  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CITRIST. 

The  king  and  parliament  now,  for  the  first  time  in 
England,  enacted  a  statute  for  the  burning  of  heretics. 
About  thirty  years  after  the  death  of  Wycliffe  Lord 
Cobham  was  put  to  death,  on  the  double  charge  of 
treason  and  heresy.  He  published  a  confession  of  his 
belief,  calm,  guarded  and  conciliatory ;  but  his  enemies 
were  determined  to  crush  him.  Insurrections  of  the 
lower  classes  of  the  people  who  loved  Richard  II.  gave 
color  to  the  false  charge  of  Cobham's  enemies.  "To 
you  as  my  king,"  addressing  Henry  IV.,  "  I  owe  under 
God  my  obedience ;  but  to  the  Pope  of  Rome,  I  owe 
neither  suit  or  service. "  He  said  to  the  Primate  and 
other  bishops,  "Many  have  been  my  sins.  I  have 
broken  in  times  past  God's  commandments;  but  for 
these  transgressions  you  have  never  rebuked  me ;  but 
for  neglecting  your  traditions  and  your  laws  I  and  others 
are  thus  cruelly  treated."  When  told  to  confess  his 
sins,  he  knelt  with  deep  devotion  on  the  stone  pave- 
ment, saying:  "I  shrive  me  to  thee,  Almighty  God, 
through  the  Lord  Jesus,  who  alone  can  give  me  for- 
giveness." He  addressed  the  multitudes  who  sur- 
rounded his  funeral  pile,  begging  them  to  obey  the 
Scriptures,  and  reject  all  evil  in  their  lives.  His  last 
words  were  ascriptions  of  praise,  but  they  became  in- 
audible from  the  crackling  thorns.  ^ 

The  persecution  of  this  noble  man  was  probably 
attributable  more  to  his  political  than  to  his  religious 
faith.  He  was  opposed  to  the  Lancastrians.*  Some 
wild  schemes  may  have  been  formed  by  some  of  the 
Lollards,  as  the  disciples  of  Wycliffe  were  called,  but 
Cobham  was  probably  ignorant  and    innocent  of   any 


*  Henry  IV.  was  a  Lancastrian. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  263 

treasonable  designs.  The  fears  of  the  government  were 
evidently  much  aroused.  It  was  reported  that  the  dis- 
affected in  the  realm  desired  to  make  Cobham  regent  of 
the  realm.  It  is  still  a  question  for  what  cause  these 
fears  were  grounded. 

Before  Henry  V.  came  to  the  throne,  two  01  three 
humble  men  were  burned  for  their  heretical  opinions. 
The  prince  rode  around  the  pile,  prepared  for  the  mar- 
tyrs, begging  them  to  recant.  He  was  in  great  distress 
to  see  the  holocaust,  but  had  not  the  courage  to  forbid 
the  sacrifice.  When  he  became  king  he  enterd  into 
close  alliance  with  the  most  powerful  of  the  church 
that  he  might  get  subsidies  to  carry  on  war  with 
France. 


264  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  (1400),  the 
Latin  Church  had  two  pontiffs,  Boniface  IX.,  resident 
at  Rome,  and  Benedict  XIII.,  at  Avignon.  On  the 
death  of  Boniface,  the  cardinals  of  his  party  elected 
(1404)  Innocent  VII.;  he  soon  died.  His  place  was 
filled  by  Gregory  XII. 

Both  of  these  popes  promised,  under  oath,  that  they 
would  resign  the  pontificate  whenever  the  interests  of 
the  Church  seemed  to  require  it ;  but  they  violated 
their  promise.  Benedict,  when  beseiged  by  the  king  of 
France  at  Avignon,  fled  to  Catalonia.  A  council  of 
nine  cardinals  met  at  Pisa,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to 
the  protracted  schism  in  the  papacy.  This  council  de- 
clared both  Benedict  and  Gregory  unworthy  of  their 
position  ;  they  then  excommunicated  them,  and  ap- 
pointed a  new  pope,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Alex- 
ander v.;  he  died  in  1410.  John  XXIII.  was  appointed 
in  his  place  by  sixteen  cardinals.  This  man  proved  to 
be  destitute  of  moral  principle  and  piety. 

Sigismund,  emperor  of  Germany,  the  king  of 
France  and  other  princes  of  Europe,  seeing  the  vast 
evils  incident  to  the  distracted  condition  both  in  Church 
and  State,  resolved  upon  a  general  council.  This  coun- 
cil met  at  Constance.  Sigismund,  with  many  princes 
of  Germany,  was  present.  The  principal  object  of  this 
great  council  was  to  extinguish  the  discord  among  the 
pontiffs.  This  point  was  accomplished.  John  XXIIl. 
was  removed,  on  account  of  criminal  offenses.     Gregory 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  265 

XII.  resigned,  and  Benedict  in  1417  was  deprived  of 
his  office  by  a  solemn  decree  of  this  council.  He  con- 
tinued to  claim  his  apostolical  rights  until  his  death,  but 
he  was  disregarded. 

Martin  V.  became  sole  pontiff  in  1417,  by  the  unani- 
mous suffrages  of  the  cardinals.  Sigismund,  the  emperor 
of  Germany,  stood  higher  than  any  successor  of  Charle- 
magne since  the  days  of  the  Othos,  the  Fredericks,  or 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg. 

The  crowned  heads,  together  with  the  contestants 
for  the  Tiara,  did  not  create  in  that  famous  assembly  at 
Constance  so  much  excitement  and  interest  as  did  the 
presence  of  John  Huss.  He  was  escorted  by  three 
nobles  of  his  country,  with  a  great  troop  of  other 
followers.  Huss  had  a  special  safe-conduct  from  Sigis- 
mund for  his  safe  arrival  and  departure  from  Constance. 
He  was  a  pale,  thin  man,  in  mean  attire.  One  of  the 
professed  objects  of  this  council  was  the  reformation  of 
the  Church,  not  only  in  its  head  but  in  its  members. 
This  wise  council  deemed  that  one  mode  of  purgation 
from  the  many  vices  and  corruptions  that  stained  the 
purity  of  the  Church,  would  be  to  extirpate  heretical 
doctrines.  John  Huss  was  summoned  to  appear  at  this 
dignified  council  as  a  heresiarch. 

The  opinions  of  Wyclifife  had  been  received  in  the 
Sclavonic  country  of  Bohemia  with  eager  zeal ;  scholars 
from  Bohemia  had  sat  at  the  feet  of  the  bold  professor 
of  theology  at  Oxford.  Prague,  the  capital  of  Bohe- 
mia, had  received  and  disseminated  Wycliffe's  writings. 
The  kings  of  this  country,  even  before  the  time  of  the 
English  reformer,  had  not  discouraged  their  preachers 
in  inveighing  against  the  vices  of  the  Roman  court  and 
the  many  abuses  that  had  become  so  rife  in  the  Church 


266  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

at  this  period.  The  schism  in  the  papacy,  the  residence 
of  the  popes  at  Avignon,  controlled  as  most  of  them 
were  by  the  kings  of  France,  had  shaken  the  awe  of  the 
hierarchy  to  its  very  base.  The  popes  that  had  been 
set  aside  by  the  Pisan  council  still  claimed  power;  John 
was  dispised  for  his  immoralities. 

John  Huss  was  a  preacher  in  the  University  chapel 
at  Prague  and  the  confessor  of  Queen  Sophia.  He  was 
learned  and  eloquent;  he  was  a  man  of  severe  morals, 
but  gentle,  friendly  and  accessible  to  all.  He  had  come 
to  Constance  to  be  judged,  far  removed  from  his  home, 
but  surrounded  by  friends  who  appreciated  his  great 
worth.  It  is  said  that  John  Huss  examined  with  great 
deliberation  the  works  of  Wycliffe,  but  his  doctrine 
worked  by  slow  degrees  into  his  mind.  His  preaching 
at  first  was  not  doctrinal,  but  directed  chiefly  against 
the  vices  of  the  time.  The  clergy  at  first  admired  his 
eloquence,  but  when  he  began  to  point  out  the  abuses 
of  the  Church,  condemning  the  luxury  and  immorality 
that  prevailed,  the  clergy  became  his  persecutors. 

Huss  was  protected  by  the  court,  but,  alas  !  the 
friendship  of  the  king  of  Bohemia,  with  the  nobles, 
availed  him  little  at  the  council  of  Constance.  Though 
half  of  Bohemia  espoused  his  doctrines,  he  was  burned 
at  the  stake  in  a  strange  city. 

Gerson,  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris, 'was 
at  the  council  of  Constance.  He  tried  hard  to  reform 
the  abuses  of  the  Church.  He  reasoned  powerfully 
against  the  infallibility  of  the  pope.  "  Who  has  made," 
he  inquires,  "  the  pope  a  saint  ?  Not  the  Holy  Ghost, 
for  high  station  can  not  bring  the  influence  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  but  the  grace  of  God.''  Under  the  influence  of  Ger- 
son, the  council  declared  their  decisions  above  the  pope. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  26/ 

The  Nominalists  and  Realists  were  furious  in  their 
controversies  about  this  time.  Mosheim  supposes 
that  Huss,  a  Realist,  was  a  martyr  to  the  violence  of 
the  Nominalists,  who  were  most  numerous  at  the  coun- 
cil of  Constance.  Milman  says,  he  was  a  martyr  to  the 
hierarchy.  He  held  all  the  great  truths  of  Christianity ; 
also  some  tenets  that  were  afterwards  rejected  by 
English  and  German  Reformers. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  his  devoted  disciple,  also  suffered 
death.  Huss  had  implored  Jerome  not  to  come  to 
the  council,  fearing  that  his  fortitude  might  yield. 
Jerome,  though  not  as  bold  as  his  master,  was  devout 
and  sincere,  and  at  the  last  was  unflinching,  as  the 
faggots  blazed  around  him. 

The  Bohemian  reformers  were  very  strenuous  with 
regard  to  the  denial  of  the  cup  to  the  laity.  They 
insisted  upon  their  right  to  receive  it,  as  our  Lord 
had  first  administered  it.  Both  symbols  were  equally 
precious  to  them. 

The  death  of  Robert  Hallam,  bishop  of  Salisbury, 
England,  in  1416,  was  a  great  blow  to  the  liberal  party. 
At  the  council  of  Constance  he  had  been  the  right  arm 
of  the  emperor,  and  was  the  most  influential  man  who 
had  opposed  death  as  the  penalty  of  heresy.  The  proud, 
luxurious  hierarchy  knew  that  truth  and  sound  argument 
were  on  the  side  of  John  Huss.  This  celebrated  man 
was  perhaps  too  dogmatical  in  his  dialectics.  The 
council  of  Constance  threatened  to  shake  the  papal 
supremacy,  but  in  the  election  of  Martin  V.  the  papacy 
was  strengthened  for  a  short  time,  as  Martin  was  a  man 
of  dignity  and  ability. 

In  the  next  century  Italy  became  a  battle-ground 
for  the  world,  and  the  Italian  wars  seemed  to  quench  in 


268  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

every  part  the  spirit  of  religion.  Then  the  popes  sunk 
to  the  same  level  they  had  occupied  when  Boniface 
VIII.  and  others  like  him  had  disgraced  the  tiara. 
Alexander  VI.  has  been  called  the  Nero  of  the  pontiffs. 
His  name  was  Roderick  Borgia.  This  shameless  man 
had  four  illegitimate  children,  Caesar  Borgia  being  one 
of  them — so  famous  for  his  vices.  Lucretia  Borgia  was 
his  daughter.  Alexander  VI.  died  in  1503.  He  died 
of  poison  which  had  been  prepared  for  others.* 

While  this  wicked  man  ruled  at  Rome,  the  noble 
preacher  Savonarola  declaimed  at  Florence  with  all  the 
zeal  and  eloquence  of  a  Christian  orator  against  the  sin 
and  corruption  of  the  time.  As  in  the  time  of  the 
prophets  of  old,  he  was  one  of  the  seven  thousand  who 
had  not  bowed  the  knee  to  Baal.  Savonarola  sum- 
moned the  princes  of  Europe  to  convene  a  council  and 
depose  the  wicked  pope.  Alexander  replied  in  excom- 
municating the  good  and  great  Florentine.  Savonarola 
denounced,  too,  the  family  of  the  Medici,  who,  though 
lovers  of  art  and  magnificence,  had  robbed  the  city  of 
Florence  of  her  political  rights,  while  they  adorned 
her  with  the  statues  of  men  who  had  loved  religion  and 
liberty. 


*  Note  on  the  Death  of  Alexander  VI. — "This  pope  was 
doomed  to  perish  by  his  own  wicked  devices.  It  is  said,  that  in  his  ap- 
pointment of  his  forty-three  cardinals,  the  majority  gained  their  dignity 
by  paying  to  the  pope  enormous  sums  of  gold.  When  these  cardinals 
had  again  become  rich,  through  their  employments  in  the  Church, 
they  were  poisoned,  that  the  papal  coffers  might  again  be  filled  by  the 
confiscation  of  their  estates.  A  similar  fate  was  reserved  for  the  car- 
dinal of  Caneto,  who  was  invited  with  Caesar  Borgia  to  the  Belvedere,  a 
favorite  retreat  of  the  pope  near  the  Vatican.  A  servant  was  instructed 
to  serve  the  guest  with  poisoned  wine.  By  mistake  the  bottles  were  in- 
terchanged and  \\\^ pope  partook  of  the  fatal  drug." — Thai.heimer. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  269 

This  remarkable  man,  Savonarola,  attacked  vice  and 
infidelity  with  great  freedom  in  the  pulpit;  he  probed 
the  corrupt  ulcers  of  the  Church  and  of  the  State  with 
an  unsparing  hand.  Though  a  devout  Catholic,  he 
denied  the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  and  was  filled  with 
horror  at  the  baseness  of  Alexander  VI.  When  Savon- 
arola was  commanded  by  this  unscrupulous  pope  to 
come  to  Rome,  and  to  quit  preaching,  he  deemed  it  his 
duty  to  disregard  these  mandates. 

Savonarola  was  a  child  of  Italy ;  he  was  warm  and 
passionate.  This  temperament  led  him  to  think  that 
he  saw  visions,  and  that  his  dreams  sometimes  were 
revelations  trom  God.  He  was  holy  and  spiritual,  and 
possessed  a  marvellous  gift  of  oratory  which  he  used  to 
elevate  and  purify  his  fellow-men. 

Savonarola's  influence  in  the  cities  of  Italy,  especi- 
ally in  Florence,  was  for  a  long  time  very  great.  His 
crafty  enemies,  encouraged  by  the  pope,  seized  him 
by  force,  put  him  to  the  rack  to  extort  confessions, 
and  finally  burned  his  body,  throwing  his  ashes  into 
the  sea. 

Savonarola  denounced  the  immoral  amusements  of 
the  Florentines ;  their  lascivious  dances,  and  their 
demoralizing  theatrical  representations.  This  opposition 
to  their  guilty  pleasures  called  down  cruel  violence 
upon  the  devoted  head  of  Savonarola.  A  biographer 
of  Dante  has  said,  in  speaking  of  the  persecutions  and 
exile  of  the  great  Florentine  patriot  and  poet,  that  all 
who  have  striven  to  elevate  their  race,  have  been  forced 
to  wear  "a  crown  of  thorns."  This  seems  to  have 
been  especially  true  for  many  centuries  in  the  history 
of  Italy;  but  now,  in  her  national  unity,  for  which 
patriots   so    long    sighed   in  vain,    there    seems   to  be 


2/0 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 


a  ground  of  hope  for  more  enlightened  liberty  and 
purer  religion.  We  must,  however,  retrace  our  steps. 
Though  the  council  of  Constance  asserted  the  right 
of  a  council  to  impose  restrictions  on  the  papacy,  it 
remained  a  barren,  abstract  proposition.  This  right  of 
councils  to  reform  the  Church  and  restrict  the  papal 
power,  was  asserted  again  at  the  council  of  Basle.  It 
was  futile. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  2/1 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

ROME RIENZI BOHEMIA. 

Martin  V.*  after  his  election  to  the  papacy  at  the 
Council  of  Constance,  feared  for  a  time  to  return  to 
Rome.  The  state  of  the  Eternal  City  was  deplorable. 
An  inundation  of  the  Tiber  had  added  to  the  wretched- 
ness of  the  people,  growing  out  of  anarchy  and  con- 
fusion. A  new  power  had  now  arisen  in  Italy.  The 
captains  of  the  free  companies,  as  these  lawless  mili- 
tary men  were  called,  had  possessed  themselves  of  a 
great  part  of  the  papal  dominions.  Ludovico  Sforza 
was  sent  against  them,  but  he  was  defeated.  One  of 
these  captains,  Braccio  Montone,  received  overtures 
from  Pope  Martin,  and  he  agreed  to  cede  to  him 
several  cities. 

Rome,  during  the  time  that  her*  bishops  or  popes 
lived  at  Avignon,  in  France,  was  the  theatre  of  the 
wildest  excesses  and  revolutions.  For  the  space  of 
seventy  years  the  popes  lived  at  Avignon,  subject  to 
the  predominant  influence  of  France,  especially  during 
the  reign  of  Philip  the  Fair.  The  rival  houses  of 
Colonna  and  Ursini  had  brought  much  misery  upon  all 
classes  of  the  people  in  Rome.  During  this  time  the 
famous  Cola  de  Rienzi  rose  to  great  power.  He  was 
first  roused  to  action  by  the  murder  of  a  beloved 
brother   in   a  broil  growing  out   of  the   feuds  of  the 

*  This  pope  became  the  sole  pontiff  in  1417  by' the  suffrages  of  all 
the  cardinals. 


272  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

nobles.  His  course  for  a  time  was  as  brilliant  as  a 
meteor,  or  as  a  burning  comet  athwart  the  sky  of 
Rome. 

Rienzi  appeared  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  lived  at  the  same  time  in  Italy  when  the 
sober,  earnest,  practical  mind  of  Wycliffe  in  England, 
was  engaged  in  translating  the  Scriptures,  and  in 
resolving  high  questions  connected  with  our  eternal 
state. 

Rienzi  was  the  cotemporary  of  Petrarch.  Petrarch 
was,  in  the  days  of  Rienzi's  prosperity,  his  friend  and 
correspondent.  He  hoped  that  this  brilliant  man 
would  bring  back  the  golden  days  of  Roman  law  and 
liberty.  Alas  !  it  was  a  vision  that  was  soon  dispelled. 
There  was  no  solid  foundation  in  the  virtue  and  intelli- 
gence of  her  people,  upon  which  a  permanent  and  pure 
structure  could  rest.  But  it  was  gorgeous  and  brilliant 
while  it  lasted. 

The  parents  of  Rieizi  afforded  him  a  liberal  educa- 
tion. His  enthusiastic  mind  perused  with  great  dili- 
gence the  manuscripts  and  marbles  of  antiquity.  He 
studied  history  and  eloquence  in  the  pages  of  Cicero, 
Livy,  Caesar,  Seneca.  He  fondly  hoped  to  be  a  restorer 
of  Roman  liberty.  "Like  Crescentius  and  Arnold  of 
Brescia, "  says  Madame  de  Stael,  "Rienzi  has  taken 
memories  for  hopes." 

We  now  quote  from  Gibbon:  "Never,  perhaps, 
has  the  energy  and  effect  of  a  single  mind  been 
more  remarkably  felt  than  in  the  sudden  reforma- 
tion of  Rome  by  the  tribune  Rienzi.  A  den  of  rob- 
bers was  converted  to  the  discipline  of  a  camp  or 
convent.  He  was  patient  to  hear,  swift  to  redress, 
inexorable  to  punish ;  his  tribunal  was  always  accessible 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  2/3 

to  the  poor,  and  to  the  stranger ;  nor  could  birth  or 
dignity,  or  the  immunities  of  the  Church,  protect  the 
offender  or  his  accompHces.  The  privileged  houses, 
the  private  sanctuaries  in  Rome  on  which  no  officer  of 
justice  would  presume  to  trespass,  were  abolished ;  and 
Rienzi  applied  the  timber  and  iron  of  their  barricades 
to  the  fortifications  of  the  capitol." 

When  an  embassy  was  sent  to  the  Papal  court  at 
Avignon,  Rienzi  was  selected  as  one  of  the  thirteen 
deputies  of  the  Commons  to  recommend  their  cause 
by  his  spirit  and  eloquence.  He  had  the  honor  of 
haranguing  Clement  VI.,  and  the  satisfaction  of  con- 
versing with  Petrarch,  a  congenial  mind.  He  was 
then  poor,  but  the  employment  of  an  apostolic 
notary  gave  him  five  florins  of  gold  ;  this  daily  stipend 
enabled  him  to  appear  more  respectably,  for  it  is 
said,  when  he  entered  Avignon  he  had  but  a  single 
garment.  His  persuasive  eloquence  commended  him 
to  all. 

Rienzi  attributed,  in  a  great  degree,  the  evils  that 
preyed  upon  the  vitals  of  Rome,  to  the  absence  of 
the  chief  shepherd.  His  oratory  was  constantly  used 
to  persuade  the  pope  to  leave  the  banks  of  the  Rhone 
and  return  to  Rome.  The  religion  of  Rienzi  was 
deeply  tinctured  with  the  superstition  of  the  times ;  but 
he  applied,  without  fear  of  sacrilege,  the  revenues  of 
the  apostolic  chamber,  to  widows  and  orphans,  and  to 
indigent  convents.  After  unparalleled  success,  in  re- 
storing order  and  law  in  Rome,  he  became  the  chief 
actor  in  the  most  extravagant  theatrical  pageants  —  and 
he  who  had  conferred  so  many  blessings  on  his  city 
became  the  victim  of  personal  vanity,  and  of  reckless 
extravagance  in  living.      He  grieved  and  disgusted  his 


274       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

warmest  admirers  by  his  presumption,  and  yet  more  by 
the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  the  nobles.  He  abdicated 
his  high  place,  retiring  from  Rome  and  spending  seven 
years  in  exile.  It  must  have  been  to  him  a  grievous 
banishment.  Again  he  was  recalled.  His  reception  was 
brilliant ;  but,  after  an  administration  of  four  months,  he 
was  killed  in  a  tumult.  In  his  last  contest  with 
the  mob,  feelings  of  reverence  and  compassion  stilL 
struggled  in  his  favor,  but  the  dagger  of  a  bold  assassin 
was  plunged  in  his  breast ;  he  fell  senseless  with  the 
first  stroke. 

Had  this  gifted  man  been  true  to  himself,  his 
career  would  be  beautiful  to  contemplate.  It  is  said 
that  he  disfigured  his  handsome  countenance  in  his 
later  days  by  intemperate  drinking  —  he  did  not  remain 
master  of  himself.  His  failings  and  virtues  have  often 
been  contrasted,  and  in  periods  of  anarchy  and  servi- 
tude the  name  of  Rienzi  has  been  a  watchword ;  and 
he  has  been  claimed  as  the  deliverer  of  his  country 
and  "the  last  of  the  Roman  tribunes."  The  most 
exalted  virtue,  alas  !  can  not  always  turn  aside  the 
dagger  or  the  pistol  of  a  fanatical  assassin  in  times 
of  revolution. 

We  must  now  return  to  the  acts  of  the  Council  of 
Constance.  Bohemia  seemed  to  rise  with'  one  impulse 
of  grief  and  indignation  when  she  heard  of  the  martyr- 
dom of  Hubs,  followed  by  that  of  Jerome  of  Prague. 
Her  king,  Wenzel  denounced  the  treachery  of  Sigis- 
mund  the  emperor,  and  the  barbarous  injustice  of  the 
Council  of  Constance.  As  the  Council  closed,  the 
Hussite  War  commenced.  It  lasted  during  the  whole 
pontificate  of  Martin  V.  This  pope  seems  to  have 
been  so  busy  with  the  regulation  of  affairs  at  Rome,  as 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  2/5 

to  give  no  heed  to  the  misery  of  Bohemia.  Rome  rose 
from  her  ruins  under  his  dihgent  administration  as  from 
a  master's  hand.  It  became  populous  and  prosperous, 
and  was  again  the  capital  of  the  Christian  world. 
"Safe  in  Rome,  Martin  heard  at  a  distance  the  roll 
of  Ziska's  chariots,  the  shrieks  of  cities  stormed, 
the  wail  of  armies  mowed  down  by  the  scythe."  This 
Bohemian  war  was  still  raging  when  the  Pope  Martin 
closed  his  earthly  career,  and  opened  a  way  for 
Eugenius   IV. 

While  King  Wenzel  lived,  the  Hussite  War  was  re- 
strained in  its  fierceness,  but  at  his  death,  Sigismund 
was  the  next  heir  to  the  throne.  To  receive  this 
traitor  as  their  king  was  more  than  Bohemia  would 
bear  —  the  torch  of  sedition  had  first  been  kindled  in 
consequence  of  the  betrayal  by  Sigismund  of  the  safe- 
conduct  of  Huss.  A  wronged  people  now  called  the 
wonderful  military  talents  of  Procopius  and  Ziska  to 
their  aid.  The  emperor  tried  to  awe  the  people  into 
obedience.  No  war  was  ever  more  remorselessly  cruel 
than  this  war  —  Sigismund  burned  without  scruple  all 
heretics  who  fell  into  his  hands.  The  reprisals  of  the 
Bohemians  were  terrible,  the  voice  of  religion  was  no 
longer  heard ;  it  was  political  and  national  indignation 
lashed  to  fury  by  injustice  and  cruelty. 

This  dreadful  strife  commenced  in  an  honest  differ- 
ence of  religious  opinions,  together  with  a  desire  to 
repress  or  lessen  the  power  of  the  hierarchy.  The 
pope's  legate  now  published  a  bull  for  a  crusade  against 
Bohemia.  The  famous  Ziska  had  become  almost  irre 
sistible  ;  he  had  produced  a  panic  among  the  Germans, 
and  revenged  upon  them  the  unspeakable  barbarities 
practiced  on  his  countrymen.     When,  in  the  third  year 


276  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

of  the  war,  Sigismund  entered  Moravia  at  the  head  of 
Hungarian  forces  they,  too,  fled  from  the  war  chariots 
of  Ziska. 

The  Council  of  Basle,  1433,  attempted  to  put  an 
end  to  this  war  in  Bohemia.  Envoys  from  that  country 
appeared  at  Basle.  But  little  was  accomplished,  until 
Eneas  Sylvius  went  into  Bohemia ;  he  was  sent  by  the 
council,  and  he  managed  matters  with  some  success. 
The  four  articles  that  the  Bohemians  specially  desired 
were  granted :  The  Eucharist  must  be  given  to  the 
clergy  and  laity  in  both  kinds  ;  the  clergy  must  not 
possess  temporal  power ;  the  Word  of  God  should  be 
free  to  all ;   public  crimes  must  be  punished. 

We  have  merely  alluded  to  the  residence  of  the 
popes  at  Avignon.  Five  popes,  from  Clement  V.  to 
Gregory  XI.,  made  their  residence  on  the  Rhone  at 
Avignon,  from  the  years  1308  to  1376.  This  period  of 
seventy  years  the  Italians  called  the  Babylonian  captiv- 
ity. The  residence  of  the  pontiffs  at  Avignon  tended 
greatly  to  weaken  the  authority  of  the  Romish  see. 
Gregory  XI.  in  the  year  1376  transferred  his  residence 
from  Avignon  to  Rome. 

This  residence  at  Avignon  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  great  schism  of  the  West,  which  lasted  fifty 
years,  and  took  place  shortly  after  the  death  of  Greg- 
ory XI.  The  cardinals  hastened  to  elect  a  successor 
to  Gregory,  fearing  that  a  Frenchman  might  be  elected. 
The  Roman  people  demanded  that  an  Italian  should  be 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Church.  The  cardinals,  ter- 
rified by  the  Roman  clamor,  elected  hastily  a  pontifif 
under  the  name  of  Urban  VI.  This  pontiff  soon  alien- 
ated the  minds  of  the  cardinals  by  his  coarse  and 
haughty  conduct.     The  cardinals  withdrew  to  the  king- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  2/7 

dom  of  Naples,  and  there  appointed  another  head,  who 
took  the  name  of  Clement  VII.  Urban  liv^ed  at  Rome, 
while  Clement  removed  to  Avignon.  From  1378  to 
141 8  one  of  the  rival  popes  lived  at  Avignon. 

In  this  way  the  unity  of  the  Latin  Church  was 
destroyed  for  a  time,  as  existing  under  one  head.  This 
disunion  continued  for  fifty  years,  and  is  called  the 
great  schism  of  the  West.  France,  Spain,  Scotland, 
Sicily,  Cyprus,  espoused  the  cause  of  Clement ;  while 
England,  with  other  countries,  thought  Urban  was  the 
true  pope. 

This  schism,  as  we  have  already  said,  was  healed  at 
the  Council  of  Constance ;  it  was  there  determined  that 
a  pontiff  is  subject  to  a  council  of  the  whole  Church. 
Eugenius  IV.  succeeded  Martin  V. 

A  council  at  Basle  was  held  soon  after  his  accession. 
The  two  objects  of  this  assembly  were,  first,  an  union 
between  the  Greeks  and  Latins,  and  secondly,  a  reform- 
ation of, the  Church,  both  in  its  head  and  members. 
Though  all  the  serious  minded  of  the  Church  had 
grieved  over  the  general  corruption,  both  in  doctrine 
and  practice,  nothing  was  done  towards  its  reforma- 
tion. Eugenius  the  pontiff  fearing  that  the  reformers 
in  the  council  (of  Basle)  would  do  some  earnest  work, 
threatened  to  dissolve  it. 

The  Greek  emperor,  John  Paleologus,  came  to  this 
council,  together  with  the  patriarch  and  the  principal 
bishops  of  Constantinople,  hoping  to  form  an  union 
with  the  Latin  Church.  The  Greeks  were  now  reduced 
to  great  extremities  with  the  Turks,  and  anxiously 
sought  to  be  reconciled  to  the  pope,  hoping  in  this  way 
to  gain  succor  and  sympathy  from  the  Latins.  Bessar- 
ion,   a   learned    man  among    the  Greeks,    exerted  his 


278       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

influence  to  induce  the  other  Greeks  to  consent  to 
acknowledge  that  the  Holy  Spirit  did  proceed  from  the 
Son,  and  that  departed  souls  undergo  purgation  by  fire 
before  they  can  have  a  vision  of  God.  Some  of  the 
Greeks  yielded,  and  a  peace  was  extorted,  but  it  was 
not  permanent.  Bessarion  was  made  a  cardinal,  in 
consequence  of  his  concessions. 

Eugenius  IV.  by  his  conduct  at  the  council  disaf- 
fected the  fathers  at  Basle,  and  they  threatened  to 
deprive  him  of  the  pontificate.  They,  in  1439,  elected 
a  new  pontiff,  who  lived  in  retirement  on  Lake  Leman. 
He  assumed  the  name  of  Felix  V.  This  schism  was  of 
short  duration,  as  Eugenius  died  in  1447.  Felix  two 
years  after  resigned  his  supremacy. 

By  the  efforts  of  the  kings  and  princes  of  Europe, 
especially  of  the  king  of  France,  tranquillity  was  once 
more  restored  to  the  Church.  Nicholas  V.  was  now 
made  pope,  a  man  of  learning  and  moderation,  and  a 
preat  patron  of  literature.  His  election  to  .the  pope- 
dom took  place  before  the  abdication  of  Felix.  Nicho- 
las was  assisted  in  literary  work  by  means  of  the 
Greeks  who  came  from  Constantinople.  .  Nicholas  died 
on  the  24th  of  March,  1455,  principally  from  grief  at 
the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks. 

Calixtus  HI.,  his  successor,  was  chiefly  remarkable 
in  urging  Christian  princes  to  fight  against  the 
Turks. 

Eneas  Sylvius  Peccolemini,  bishop  of  Sienna,  was 
made  pope  in  1458.  He  took  the  name  of  Pius  H.  He 
was  a  man  renowned  for  his  writings  and  other  achieve- 
ments. Posterity  would  have  accounted  him  a  much 
greater  man,  if  he  had  not  been  guilty  of  the  inconsis- 
tency of  defending  the  rights  of  councils  against  the 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  2/9 

pontiffs  when  he  was  Eneas  Sylvius,  and,  after  he 
was  made  pope,  denying  that  a  council  is  superior  to  a 
pontiff.  In  1461  he  obtained  from  Louis  XL,  king  of 
France,  the  abrogation  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
which  had  been  passed  by  the  good  Louis  IX.  in 
behalf  of  liberty. 


280  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  Chris- 
tianity suffered  much  from  the  inroads  of  the  Turks 
and  Tartars,  until  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Greek 
Empire  in  1455  by  the  taking  of  Constantinople.  In 
Asiatic  Tartary,  among  the  Mongols  and  adjacent 
nations,  the  ground  which  had  been  so  long  occupied 
by  the  religion  of  Christ  had  become  the  seat  of  gross 
superstition.  Mosheim  says  that  as  late  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Nestorian  patriarch 
sent  certain  men  to  Cathay  and  China  to  preside  as 
bishops  in  the  churches  existing  in  those  countries  and 
their  remote  provinces.  Nestorian  Christian  light  still 
glimmered  amid  surrounding  darkness.  Nestorianism 
is  still  found,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  in  Armenia, 
and  will  doubtless  increase  and  shine  when  brought 
more  in  contact  with  the  enhghtening  influences  of  the 
present  age. 

To  return,  one  part  of  Constantinople  was  taken  by 
storm,  the  other  part  surrendered  on  terms  of  capitu- 
lation. The  outward  form  of  the  Christian  Church  was 
left  untouched  until  the  time  of  Selim  I.  He  deprived 
them  of  their  temples  and  interfered  with  their  worship 
and  Christian  usages.  The  grand  church  of  St.  Sophia 
was  converted  into  a  Mahometan  mosque.  The  tyranny 
of  the  Turks  almost  silenced  for  a  time  the  Grecian  and 
Oriental  muses.  But  the  loss  of  the  East  was  the  gain 
of  the  West.  Many  scholars  found  a  home  in  Italy, 
which  greatly  contributed  to  the  Renaissance,  in  stirring 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  28 1 

up  the  minds  of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  others,  and  in 
recovering  from  the  dust  of  ages  Greek  and  Latin 
books  of  the  Augustan  age. 

Two  schools  of  philosophy  —  Aristotelian  and 
Platonic  —  contended  with  each  other  which  of  the 
two  should  have  the  preeminence.  This  controversy 
was  probably  of  little  advantage  to  the  school  of  Christ. 
It  was  not  in  Italy  that  the  wave  of  the  Reformation 
was  lifted,  notwithstanding  the  noble  struggles  of  Sa- 
vonarola to  purify  the  current  of  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
The  Scholastics,  who  were  the  disciples  of  the  loved 
and  learned  Thomas  Aquinas,  Duns  Scotus,  and  others, 
had  long  been  losing  ground,  because  their  disquisitions 
and  essays  were  loaded  with  dialectics  and  with  terms 
unmeaning  to  the  people,  instead  of  demonstrating  the 
plain  declarations  of  the  sacred  volume.  As  the  Scho- 
lastics declined  in  popularity,  the  Mystics  gained 
strength.  There  were  many  differences  of  opinion 
among  the  Mystics.  One  characteristic  seems  to  have 
been  to  ascribe  little  efficacy  to  the  external  rites  of 
religion.  Religion,  the  Mystic  said,  consisted  chiefly  in 
the  contemplation  of  God  ;  and  at  the  same  time  they 
attempted  to  reason  about  the  Trinity  and  of  the  soul 
of  man  with  a  subtlety  that  the  capacity  of  that  age 
could  not  comprehend.  Among  the  Mystics  there 
were  excellent  men  ;  Thomas  a  Kempis  is  a  shining 
example  of  these.  The  author  of  the  treatise,  on  the 
Imitation  of  Christ  was  born  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne. 
He  assumed  the  habit  of  a  monk  in  1406.  He  lived  to 
the  age  of  ninety-two. 

We  doubt  not  that  among  the  Fratricelli  there  were 
some  true  Christians.  These  people  were  Franciscan 
monks,  who  insisted  upon  observing  strictly  the  rules 


282  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

of  their  order.  They  were  sometimes  found  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  pontiffs,  and  were  persecuted  as  heretics. 
One  of  these,  Celestine  V.,  was  made  Pope,  but  he 
soon  resigned  the  papal  chair. 

John  WesseHus  was  a  contemporary  of  Savonarola, 
but  of  another  clime  and  country.  When  Martin 
Luther  read  the  works  of  Wesselius,  he  said  :  "  Had  I 
previously  read  these  books,  it  might  have  been  said 
that  Luther  derived  all  his  views  from  Wesselius,  so 
perfectly  accordant  are  they  in  spirit.  This  increases 
my  joy  and  confidence  in  the  correctness  of  my  own 
opinions,  since  with  such  uniform  agreement,  nearly  in 
the  same  words,  though  at  a  different  period,  and  in 
another  country,  he  harmonizes  with  me  throughout." 

Thus,  we  see,  all  down  the  ages,  amid  darkness  that 
could  be  felt  and  shadows  that  obscured  the  sacred 
page,  there  were  witnesses  for  Christ  that  lived,  suffered 
and  died  for  Him.  Though  the  wise  and  good  saw  the 
necessity  of  diminishing  ceremonies  and  festal  days, 
some  in  the  fifteenth  century  desired  to  add  to  them. 
Sixtus  IV.  ordered  the  festival  of  the  Transfiguration  of 
Christ.  He  also  promised  remission  of  sins  to  all  who 
would  keep,  from  year  to  year,  the  memorial  of  the 
immaculate  conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

Of  all  the  religious  fraternities  that  were  prominent 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  none  was  more  distinguished 
than  "the  Brethren  or  Clerks  of  the  Common  Life," 
under  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine.  In  these  schools 
were  trained  nearly  all  the  restorers  of  polite  learning 
in  Germany  and  in  Holland. 

Erasmus  of  Rotterdam  was  trained  in  one  of  these 
schools  —  he  who  was  so  celebrated  as  a  teacher  of 
Greek  in  Oxford,  England. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  283 

While  the  Turks  were  darkening  counsel  and  exer- 
cising dreadful  tyrannies  on  the  eastern  side  of  Europe, 
a  people  of  the  same  religion,  but  of  a  different  race, 
lived  harmoniously  in  the  southwest  of  Europe  —  we 
mean  the  Spanish  Arabs.  They  were  called  Saracens 
as  the  followers  of  Mahomet,  but  in  Spain  they  were 
called  Moors  (afterwards  Moriscoes).  This  people 
came  into  Spain  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century, 
while  all  the  states  of  Europe  were  in  a  condition  of 
unrest  or  disintegration.  It  was  nearly  three  centuries 
before  the  Norman  conquest  (1066).  It  was  long  before 
Rome  acquired  temporal  power. 

The  Latin  and  Greek  Churches  were,  at  that  time, 
in  the  midst  of  the  iconoclastic  controversy.  The 
Lombards  had  entered  Italy.  The  Danes  and  the 
Normans  were  intruding  on  the  courts  of  England  and 
France. 

It  was  the  grandfather  of  Charlemagne,  Charles 
Martel,  who,  by  his  great  victory  at  Tours,  France, 
drove  back  the  first  Moslem  army  that  threatened  to 
overrun  Christian  Europe.  It  was  about  one  hundred 
years  after  the  death  of  Mahomet  that  a  dynasty  allied 
to  or  descended  from  Mahomet,  called  the  Abassides, 
took  up  their  residence  in  Andalusia,  the  most  fertile 
and  beautiful  portion  of  Spain.  They  gained  this 
country  by  overcoming  in  battle  Roderic,  the  last  of 
the  Goths.     Here  they  lived  for  nearly  eight  centuries. 

After  the  memorable  defeat  at  Tours,  the  energies 
of  the  Spanish  Arabs  were  no  longer  expended  in  the 
career  of  conquest.  They  became  the  most  literary 
people  in  Europe.  After  the  conquest,  such  of  the 
Christians  as  chose  were  permitted  to   remain   in  the 


284  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

conquered  territory.  They  were  permitted  to  worship 
in  their  own  way.* 

The  Spanish  caliphs  supported  a  large  military 
force.  The  flower  of  these  forces  was  a  body-guard  of 
twelve  thousand  men,  one-third  of  whom  were  Chris- 
tians. They  made  Cordova  the  capital  of  their  empire. 
A  glowing  picture  has  been  drawn  by  historians  of  the 
great  progress  made  by  the  Saracenic  Moors,  in  knowl- 
edge and  in  all  the  elegant  arts  of  life. 

A  period  of  brilliant  illumination  with  the  Saracens 
corresponds  with  the  deepest  barbarism  in  Europe. 
Some  notion  may  be  formed  of  the  taste  and  magnifi- 
cence of  this  era,  from  the  remains  of  the  far-famed 
mosque  of  Cordova.  Most  of  its  ancient  glories  have 
departed,  but  its  thousand  columns  of  variegated  marble 
still  remain. 

The  French  Pope  Sylvester  II.  is  said  to  have  drawn 
much  of  his  knowledge  f  from  the  schools  of  the 
Spanish  Arabs.  The  beautiful  frescoes  still  to  be  seen 
on  the  walls  of  the  Alhambra  (the  palace  so  beautifully 
described  by  Irving)  are  corroborative  of  the  wonderful 
excellence  of  the  Saracenic  Moors  in  art.  Their  fond- 
ness for  luxury  and  letters  was  derived,  it  is  said,  from 
their  intercourse  and  correspondence  with  Bagdad  and 
other  cities  of  the  East,  after  their  conquest  of  Granada. 

The  Koran  does  not  contain,  says  Prescott,  a  single 
precept  in  favor  of  the  cultivation  of  science.  The 
climate  and  soil  of  Spain  were  eminently  propitious  to 
growth  and  progress. 


*  Prescott. 

t  It  has  often  been  said  that  the  Saracens  derived  their  early  learn- 
ing from  Christians  in  the  East. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  285 

Algebra  and  the  higher  mathematics  were  taught  in 
the  Saracenic  schools  of  Spain,  and  in  this  way  were 
diffused  over  Europe.  Manuscripts  of  cotton  paper  as 
early  as  1009  have  been  found  in  the  Escurial,  and  in 
1 106  manuscripts  of  linen  paper.  The  application  of 
gunpowder  to  military  science  was  learned  through  the 
same  channel.*  They  introduced  into  Europe  a  vari- 
ety of  salutary  elixirs,  but  their  medical  prescriptions 
were  regulated  by  the  aspect  of  the  stars.  Their 
physics  was  debased  by  magic,  their  chemistry  degen- 
erated into  alchemy,  their  astronomy  into  astrology. 
They  were  the  subjects  of  a  despotic  government,  and 
"the  disciples  of  fatalism.  Man  appeared  to  them  in 
the  contrasted  aspects  of  master  and  slave.  There  was 
no  such  precept  in  Mahomet's  Bible  as  "Do  unto 
others  as  you  would  have  them  do  to  you."  But 
their  sway  over  their  subjects,  whether  Moslem  or 
Christian,  was  mild  and  considerate. 

*  Prescott. 


286  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

THE    INQUISITION. 

For  centuries  after  the  great  Saracenic  invasion, 
Spain  consisted  of  small  independent  states,  often  at  war 
with  each  other.  This  is,  doubtless,  the  reason  why 
the  Moors  were  so  long  permitted  an  undisturbed  resi- 
dence in  the  fairest  parts  of  Spain.  About  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century  the  Spaniards  had  reached  the 
Douro  and  the  Ebro.  In  the  eleventh  century,  under 
the  banner  of  the  Cid,*  the  Spaniards  extended  their 
line  of  conquest  to  the  Tagus.  The  poem  of  the  Cid, 
written  a  century  afterwards,  is  supposed  to  have  en- 
gendered, or  aroused,  a  patriotic  desire  to  reconquer 
their  country  from  the  Moslem.  By  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century  the  dominion  of  the  Moors 
was  restricted  to  the  province  of  Granada.  This  little 
kingdom  resisted  for  a  long  time  the  united  forces  of 
the  Spanish  monarchies, 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella  began  to  reign  over  the 
kingdoms  of  Arragon,  Castile  and  Leon  in  1474.  His- 
torians have  cast  a  beautiful  halo  over  the  name  and 
character  of  Isabella,  both  as  a  woman  and  as  a  queen. 
We  think  of  her  as  the  sympathizing,  intelligent  pat- 
roness who  befriended  Columbus,  who  found  for  us  a 
home  in  this  new  world.  Yet  it  was  in  her  reign  that 
one  of  the  greatest  abuses  of  power  that  ever  disgraced 

*  The  Cid  was  a  famous  champion  of  Christianity  in  the  eleventh 
century.     He  has  been  a  great  favorite  of  poets  and  historians. 


AXNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  28/ 

humanity,  received  the  royal  sanction.  We  meap  the 
Inqidsitioti ;  and  it  is  to  introduce  this  monster  of 
iniquity  that  we  have  made  this  digression  into  Spanish 
history. 

We  do  not  understand  that  the  tribunal  of  confes- 
sion, or  the  confessional,  is  necessarily  a  device  to 
cheat  unwary  souls ;  but,  the  reader  of  Church  history 
must  discover  that,  in  times  of  ignorance,  and  in  the 
hands  of  fanatical,  designing  men,  the  confessional  may 
become  a  terrible  engine  of  tyranny.  This  truth  is 
fully  exemplified  in  the  life  of  Isabella.  Her  earliest 
confessor  was  a  wicked  fanatic,  whose  name,  Torque- 
mada,  became  afterwards  so  famous  in  his  active  work 
in  the  Inquisition. 

The  Jews  for  centuries  had  been  very  numerous  in 
Spain  ;  they  had  frequently  occupied  positions  of  high 
trust  in  the  government.  They  were  at  this  time  very 
rich ;  and,  in  order  to  evade  legislative  enactments, 
which  were  very  severe  upon  them,  some  thousands 
professed  conversion  to  Christianity.  The  situation  of 
these  new  converts,  after  they  had  intermarried  in 
noble  Christian  families,  suddenly  became  very  insecure. 
The  Dominicans,  who  were  very  watchful  for  heresy, 
discovered  their  indifference  to  Christian  rites  ;  they 
sounded  the  alarm,  and  insisted  that  "the  Holy  Office 
of  the  Inquisition  "  should  be  introduced  into  Castile. 
It  had  existed  for  a  time  in  southern  France,  an  inquisi- 
torial office  being  established  there  for  the  punishment 
of  the  Albigenses. 

When  the  cruel  scheme  was  mentioned  to  Ferdi- 
nand, he  listened  with  complacency ;  but  it  was  not  an 
easy  matter  to  vanquish  the  repugnance  of  Isabella  to  a 
scheme   so  .contrary  to  her   natural    benevolence   and 


288       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

magnanimity.  This  scheme  promised  an  ample  source 
of  revenue  in  the  confiscations  it  involved.  We  may 
readily  believe  in  the  sincere  opposition  the  queen  made 
to  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition,  when  we  remem- 
ber the  controversies  she  afterwards  had  with  the  able 
Ximenes  in  regard  to  his  interference  with  the  religion 
of  the  Moors.  The  objections  of  the  queen  of  Castile 
at  length  yielded  to  the  arguments  of  wicked  advocates 
when  she  called  to  mind  the  injunctions  of  Torquemada 
with  regard  to  her  duty  of  extirpating  heresy.  She 
probably  never  knew  the  horrible  details  that  were  con- 
nected with  its  practical  use.  The  abuses  of  it  were 
greater  after  her  death.* 

Llorente,  the  historian  of  the  Inquisition,  computes 
that  during  the  administration  of  Torquemada  in 
eighteen  years,  there  were  upwards  of  ten  thousand 
burnt,  together  with  six  thousand  who  were  condemned 
and  burnt  in  effigy  —  ninety-seven  thousand  reconciled 
by  various  penances. 

The  persecutions  under  Torquemada  were  confined 
almost  wholly  to  the  Jews.  "The  fires  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion," says  Prescott,  "which  were  lighted  for  the  Jews, 
were  destined  eventually  to  consume  their  oppressors. 
They  were  still  more  deeply  avenged  in  the  moral  ittfluence 
of  this  tribunal,  which,  eating  like  a  canker  into  the 
heart  of  the  monarchy,  at  the  very  time  //  exhibited 
such  goodly  promise,  left  it,  at  length,  a  bare  and 
sapless  trunk." 

Sixtus  IV.  at  one  time  rebuked  the  intemperate 
zeal  of  the  inquisitors,  but  afterwards  we  find  him  seek- 
ing to  quiet  the  scruples  of  the  queen  respecting  the 

*  It  is  quite  certain  that  Isabella  was  ignorant  of  the  cruel  details. 
Witness  her  tenderness  and  humanity  to  the  Indians.    • 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  289 

appropriation  of  the  confiscated  property ;  he  also  ex- 
horts the  monarchs  of  Castile  and  Arragon  to  proceed 
with  the  work  of  purification. 

In  the  same  year  that  this  iniquitous  court  com- 
menced its  operations,  a  plague  desolated  Seville  which 
swept  off  fifteen  thousand  of  the  inhabitants. 

"  Let  me  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  man,"  says 
David,  when  a  choice  of  evils  was  presented  to  him. 
The  history  of  the  Inquisition  proves  that  fanaticism, 
armed  with  power,  is  the  most  dreadful  evil  that  can 
befall  a  nation.  *The  odium  excited  by  Torquemada's 
cruelty  was  so  great,  that  he  thrice  sent  an  agent  to 
Rome  to  defend  his  cause  before  the  infamous  pontiff 
Alexander  VI.  The  sufferings  entailed  upon  those 
accused  of  heresy  by  the  Inquisition  were  terrible,  f 
Many  of  the  accessories  of  this  Satanic  ceremony 
were  not  used  or  practiced  until  after  the  demise 
of  Isabella.  It  is  the  tendeticy  of  all  evil  institutions 
to  grow  worse,  until  the  wrath  of  man,  under  the 
mighty  power  of  God,  rises  in  majesty  and  blots  them 
out  forever. 

The  influence  that  first  kindled  the  fires  of  the 
Spanish  Inquisition,  was  the  mean  impulse  of  greed,  or 
covetousness.  The  extortion  of  money  from  the  rich 
Jews,  was  the  first  thought ;  but  hypocrisy  called  to 
her  aid  fanaticism,  a  bird  of  evil  omen  with  fierce 
talons  and  hungry  beak  —  how  unlike  the  symbol  of 
holy  influences,  the  gentle  dove. 

*  Prescott. 

t  The  sentence  pronounced  by  the  Inquisitors,  just  be'fore  the  exe- 
cution by  burning,  was  called  Auto-da-ft.  Except  the  last  act  of  burn- 
ing, the  proudest  grandees  of  the  land  sometimes  witnessed  the  dismal 
tragedy. 


290  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

We  can  comprehend  how  the  heathen,  in  the  age  of 
Nero,  could  fancy  that  they  might  be  doing  God  service 
in  their  persecution  of  the  primitive  Christians,  sup- 
posing, in  their  deep  ignorance,  that  blood  was  propiti- 
atory ;  but  how  one  bearing  the  name  of  Christ  can  be 
a  persecutor,  presents  a  problem  in  human  history  very 
difficult  to  solve.  The  truth  of  history  declares,  how- 
ever, that  the  murderous  engine  called  the  Inquisition 
existed  nearly  three  centuries  in  Christian  Spain  ;  a 
country  that  had  been  free,  but  in  the  reigns  of  Ferdi- 
nand, Charles  V.,  and  especially  under  Philip  II.,  the 
government  became  a  grinding  despotism.  The  Inqui- 
sition was  not  entirely  suppressed  until  1808. 

This  Holy  Office  was  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Domin- 
icans ;  but  it  is  not  true,  as  has  been  sometimes  imputed 
to  him,  that  St.  Dominic  was  the  founder.  His  char- 
acter, if  there  is  truth  in  history,  or  symmetry  in  the 
qualities  of  the  heart  and  mind,  falsifies  this  idea. 

It  is  somewhat  refreshing  to  know  that  even  in  this 
age  (we  mean  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth,  and  in  the 
sixteenth  century),  there  were  some  consistent  and 
beautiful  characters.  Among  these  we  can  not  reckon 
Isabella's  prime  minister,  Ximenes,  because  he  did  not 
possess  charity,  which  the  apostle  declares  is  greater 
than  faith  and  hope. 

Ximenes  was  intellectually  great ;  he  was  a  great 
statesman,  and  severely  punished  every  offense  against 
his  state ;  as  a  churchman  he  identified  himself  with 
the  interests  of  his  religion,  and  punished  delinquents 
with  severity.  He  freely  forgave,  it  is  said,  every  per- 
sonal injury;  this  is  admirable.  He  built  up  no  family; 
he  dispensed  his  large  revenues  on  great  public  objects 
and   upon   the   poor.     His  condition   in  early  life  was 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  29 1 

lowly ;  he  was  not  ashamed  of  it.    He  was  not  destitute 
of  sensibility,  as  is  evident  ffom  kind  acts  to  his  early 
humble  friends.'     He  was  irreproachable  in  his  morals. 
This  proves  his  strength  of  character,  and  his  fear  of 
God,  as  he  lived  in  a  very  corrupt  time. 

When  he  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  office  as 
archbishop  of  Toledo,  he  devoted  his  energies  to 
schemes  of  reform  ;  in  this  his  royal  mistress  was  also 
much  interested.  The  clergy  had  widely  departed 
from  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  by  which  they  were 
bound.  Nothwithstanding  much  opposition,  he  effected 
thorough  outward  reform.  The  monasteries,  too,  were 
in  great  need  of  review  and  renovation.  A  great 
clamor  was  raised  against  him,  but  Ximenes  w^as  stead- 
fast and  inexorable  in  his  proceedings  to  work  a  reform. 
The  general  of  the  Franciscans  came  from  Rome  to 
Spain  to  compel  him  to  desist  in  his  inquisitorial  pro- 
ceedings, but,  sustained  by  the  queen,  he  persevered 
under  all  opposition.  The  Spanish  clergy  had  been 
noted  for  their  dissolute  way  of  life,  and  the  beneficial 
changes  wrought  by  the  example,  discipline  and  teach- 
ing of  Ximenes  and  the  queen,  are  the  subject  of  great 
praise  with  their  contemporaries. 

The  moral  energy  and  brilliant  talents  of  Ximenes, 
stimulated  as  they  were  by  patriotism  and  religion, 
entitle  him  to  be  considered  the  leading  man  in  the 
momentous  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  He  was 
the  centre  of  influence  and  action,  from  the  high  posi- 
tions of  trust  he  occupied.  Several  remarkable  men 
belong  to  this  age,  some,  perhaps,  better  and  nobler 
than  he  ;  but  their  position  did  not  permit  them  to 
wield  at  the  time  so  great  an  influence.  The  great  and 
good  Columbus,  as  all  know,  belongs  to  this  era.     The 


292       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

venerable  and  benevolent  Las  Casas  was  also  a  con- 
temporary. Las  Casas  de^^oted  his  energies  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  condition  of  the  Indians  in  the  newly 
discovered  islands,  who  were  most  cruelly  treated  by 
those  Spaniards  who  were  intent  on  enriching  them- 
selves. This  good  man,  Las  Casas,  refused  a  rich  bish- 
opric in  Cuzco  and  afterwards  accepted,  in  Mexico,  the 
bishopric  of  Chiapa,  that  he  might  convert  and  instruct 
the  heathen.      His  was  a  soul  of  love  and  gentleness. 

But  to  return  to  Ximenes  and  the  policy  he  pursued 
in  Granada.  This  country  had  been  admirably  governed 
for  eight  years  after  its  conquest.  Fernando  de  Tala- 
vera,  a  mild  and  moderate  man,  had  been  made  bishop 
of  the  see  of  Granada.  The  conversion  of  the  Moors 
to  Christianity  was  his  great  anxiety.  He  regarded 
them  with  tenderness  and  charity,  and  with  a  very 
different  spirit  from  most  of  his  brethren.*  Though 
late  in  life,  he  determined  to  learn  Arabic,  that  he 
might  commune  with  the  Arabs  in  their  own  language. 
He  caused  vocabularies,  grammars  and  catechisms  to 
be  compiled ;  also  some  selections  from  the  Gospels. 
He  unsealed  the  sacred  oracles  which  had  been  shut 
out  from  their  sight  —  he  opened  to  them  the  only  true 
source  of  Christian  knowledge,  "the  ministration  of 
the  Word."  His  wise,  benevolent  measures  and  ex- 
emplary manners  gave  him  great  authority  among  the 
Moors,  His  progress  was  necessarily  slow,  but  it 
would  have  been  effective,  had  it  not  been  for  the  in- 
terference of  zealots,  without  knowledge,  who  thought 
more  active  measures  ought  to  be  pursued. 

Ximenes  in  1499  communicated  with  Talavera  upon 
this  subject,   and   requested   leave  to  participate  with 

*  Prescott. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  293 

him  in  this  labor  of  love.  The  sovereigns,  understand- 
ing the  disposition  of  Ximenes,  enjoined  upon  him  and 
other  prelates  to  observe  the  temperate  and  wise  policy 
hitherto  pursued,  and  to  beware  of  giving  the  Moors 
any  cause  of  discontent. 

Ximenes  was  not  of  the  temper  to  follow  the  pacific 
Christian  practice  of  Talavera. 

Ximenes  summoned  a  conference  of  leading  men, 
and  expounded  with  all  the  eloquence  and  learning  at 
his  command  the  true  foundations  of  the  Christian 
faith,  and  the  errors  of  Mahometanism.  He  enforced 
his  arguments  by  rich  and  costly  presents,  consisting 
chiefly  of  elegant  dresses,  of  which  the  Moors  were 
very  fond.  Whether  arguments,  or  gifts,  availed  most, 
is  not  known ;  but  many  of  these  learned  men  soon 
expressed  their  willingness  to  be  baptized.  They  were 
followed  by  illiterate  disciples,  so  that,  in  one  day,  four 
thousand  are  said  to  have  offered  themselves  for  bap- 
tism. Ximenes,  unable  to  baptize  them  individually, 
adopted  the  expedient  of  baptizing  them  by  aspersion — 
he  scattered  the  holy  water  from  a  mop  or  hyssop,  and 
threw  it  upon  the  heads  of  the  multitude. 

Some  opposers  soon  rose  up  against  the  work  of 
Ximenes  ;  they  declared  he  was  violating  the  treaty 
made  at  the  conquest.  This  opposition'seemed  to  stim- 
ulate the  arbitrary  Ximenes,  who  began  to  use  some 
violent  measures.  This  led  to  an  insurrection,  and 
the  sovereigns  to  their  dismay  perceived  that  the  zeal 
of  the  propagandist  Ximenes  would  lead  to  a  fearful 
war.  Meanwhile,  Ximenes  had  caused  all  the  Arabic 
manuscripts  he  could  procure  to  be  heaped  together  in 
one  of  the  great  squares  of  the  city  of  Granada,  and 
burned  !    The  largest  part  were  copies  of  the  Koran,  or 


294  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST, 

books  of  Moslem  theology  —  but  they  were  beautifully 
executed,  sumptuously  bound  and  decorated ;  for  in 
these  things  the  Spanish  Arabs  exceeded  every  people 
in  Europe.  He  reserved  for  his  University  of  Alcala, 
of  which  he  was  the  founder,  three  hundred  volumes 
relating  to  medical  science.  When  Ximenes  was  after- 
Avards  attacked  by  an  enraged  populace  in  his  own 
palace,  he  was  as  intrepid  in  facing  danger  as  he  had 
been  remorseless  in  burning  the  Arabian  libraries. 
Talavera  by  his  personal  influence  quieted  them  for 
a  time 

Many  of  the  people  from  this  time  migrated  to 
Barbary,  and  the  remainder  of  the  population  abjured 
Mahometanism  and  consented  to  receive  baptism. 

The  whole  blame  of  the  disturbances  at  Granada 
were  rightly  imputed  to  Ximenes ;  but  afterwards, 
when  they  saw  how  many  converts  were  made,  they 
declared  the  triumphs  of  Ximenes  were  great. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  295 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

In  the  two  foregoing  chapters  we  have  written  some- 
what of  the  history  of  Spain,  both  in  Church  and  State. 
We  have  seen,  not  only  in  Spain,  but  in  all  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  the  great  need  of  reform.  Licentious- 
ness stalked  abroad,  not  only  in  the  persons  of  the  in- 
ferior clergy,  but  in  those  who  claimed  to  be  at  the 
head  of  spiritual  affairs. 

A  truly  interesting  era  had  now  arrived.  Printing 
had  been  introduced  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe. 
Much  of  the  indifference  and  immorality  among  the 
clergy  and  people  was  doubtless  due  to  the  ignorance 
of  the  New  Testament.  Not  only  were  the  manuscripts 
of  the  gospels  and  epistles  rare  and  expensive,  but 
they  were  written  in  languages  not  generally  understood 
by  the  people.  Wycliffe,  as  we  have  said,  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  before  this  time  had  sent  abroad  the 
Word  of  God,  written  in  a  vulgar  tongue,  and  a  few 
other  reformers  had 'made  efforts  of  enlightenment  in 
other  countries ;  but  at  the  dawn  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury most  of  these  translations  had  died  out.  But  about 
this  time  a  great  revival  of  learning  took  place,  com- 
mencing in  Italy  ;  this  revival  extended  to  Holland,  Ger- 
many, France  and  England.  Many  things  marvellous 
and  strange  had  been  revealed  —  a  new  continent  had 
been  discovered ;  the  Pacific  Ocean  had  been  seen  by 
Balboa,  from  the  hills  of  Panama ;  the  dusky  savages 
of  the  Indies,  together  with  other  unexpected  wonders, 
led  to  credulity  in  the  people  which  induced  them  to 


296  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

receive  as  truths  monstrous  fables,  recited  by  designing 
adventurers.  The  world  was  awakened  from  the  sleep 
of  ages. 

Nicholas  V.  aspired  to  make  Italy  the  domicile  and 
Rome  the  capital  of  letters  and  art.  His  death  was 
hastened  by  th5  taking  of  Constantinople.  In  1458 
Eneas  Sylvius  Piccolimini  became  Pius  II.  He  was  a 
man  of  consummate  ability.  Pius  II.  was  the  only 
pope  who  risked  his  life  in  a  crusade  against  the 
Turks.  Nicholas  V.  built  the  Vatican.  Julius  II.  and 
Leo  X.  did  but  accomplish,  says  Milman,  that  which 
had  dawned  upon  the  mind  of  Nicholas  V.  We  mean 
the  Cathedral  of  the  Apostle  of  St,  Peter.  In  Nicholas 
V.  closed  one  great  age  of  the  papacy. 

The  revival  of  learning  in  Italy  seemed  to  do  little 
for  true  religion  in  closely  uniting  the  moral  and  holy 
with  the  ritual.  But  in  England  and  Germany  the  re- 
sults were  different.  The  principal  chairs  of  the  universi- 
ties had  been  long  held  by  men  unfit  for  these  places ; 
some  of  these  were  filled  by  mendicant  monks,  others 
by  men  who  pretended  to  teach  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle.  There  were  a  few  of  them  who  taught  with 
ability  and  earnestness  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible.  The 
little  piety  that  remained  at  this  time,  seemed  to  be 
with  the  Mystics.  This  people  tried  to  demonstrate 
the  vanity  of  external  worship  without  holiness  of 
heart  and  life.  When  Luther  arose  in  the  University 
of  Paris  to  dispute  with  her  learned  sons,  out  of  the 
Scriptures,  there  was  not  one  competent  to  discuss 
with  him. 

Under  the  popes  Nicholas  V.  and  Pius  II.  Italy 
became  the  great  school  of  Christendom.  Multitudes 
resorted  thither  to    learn   the  ancient  languages,    and 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  297 

buy  the  manuscripts  of  the  classics.  Nicholas  V.  did 
not  forsee  that  this  great  patronage  of  learning  would 
be  a  foremost  cause  of  tlie  ruin  of  medieval  religion. 
The  dominion  of  Latin  Christianity  was  drawing  to  a 
close. 

Erasmus  in  1498  met  at  Oxford,  in  England, 
some  learned  men  who  had  studied  in  Italy.  Of 
Dean  Colet  he  says,  "when  I  hear  him  it  seems  that 
I  am  listening  to  Plato  himself."  At  Oxford  Erasmus 
prepared  himself  to  publish  the  New  Testament  in 
Greek,  which  was  of  inestimable  value  in  the  work  of 
the  Reformation.  This  work  appeared  at  Basle,  in 
15  16.  The  "  Colloquies  "  of  Erasmus  ridiculed  and 
condemned  the  superstitions  of  the  day — the  indulgen" 
ces ;  the  lying  miracles ;  the  idolatry  of  images  and 
saints  which  prevailed. 

Though  Erasmus  did  so  much  good  work  for  the 
Reformation  —  causing  the  pure  stream  of  Christian 
truth  to  flow  over  the  land  by  the  translation  of  the 
New  Testament,  yet  it  has  been  said  he  was  half- 
hearted in  the  love  of  Christian  truth.  Yet  Eras- 
mus said,  "  I  wish  that  all  .men  and  all  women  might 
read  the  gospels  and  epistles  of  St.  Paul.  I  long  for 
the  day  when  the  husbandman  *  shall  sing  parts  of  them 
to  himself  as  he  follows  the  plow,  and  the  weaver  shall 
hum  them  to  the  shuttle,  and  the  traveller  shall  while 
away  the  reveries  of  his  journey,  with  their  stories." 
Erasmus  did  not  relish  the  Jieat  of  controversy,  but 
he  diffused  so  much  light  over  the  path  of  the  inquiring 
Christian,    that   we   do   not   think    his    hearty    love    of 


*  We  think  such  sentiments  show  love  and  heartiness  for  the  Word 
of  God  and  for  the  souls  of  men.      Is  not  this  religion  ? 


298  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Christian  truth,  as  understood  by  the  great  reformers 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  should  be  questioned. 

The  disciples  of  the  "new  learning"  on  the  eve  of 
the  Reformation  were  called  "  Humanists."  Sir  Thom- 
as Moore  was  one  of  these.  At  first  tolerant  in  his 
opinions,  and  seeing  clearly  the  necessity  of  Church 
reformation,  yet,  when  he  read  the  attacks  of  Luther 
on  the  Church,  he  was  greatly  excited ;  this  man,  so 
much  admired  in  the  flower  of  his  days  by  all  parties, 
became  a  persecutor.  He  was  made  Lord  Chancellor 
after  Wolsey's  fall,  and  this  was  a  signal  for  the  fires 
of  Smithfield  to  be  lighted. 

Wolsey,  with  all  his  faults,  was  not  a  persecutor. 
"  I  hear  no  widows'  sighs,  nor  see  any  orphans'  tears, 
says  Thomas  Fuller,  "caused  by  him."  Wolsey 
was  a  many  -  sided  man ;  he  loved  pageantry, 
place  and  preferment ;  and  in  these  things  no 
man  was  ever  more  largely  gratified.  Honors  fol- 
lowed one  another  in  rapid  succession.  He  was  dean 
of  Lincoln,  archbishop  of  York,  cardinal,  priest ;  then 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England.  Having  been  in  early  life 
chaplain  to  Henry  VH.,  he  became  counselor  and 
companion  to  his  son,  Henry  VHL  Wolsey  is  charged 
with  the  great  crime  of  permitting  young  Henry  to 
play  the  profligate  without  restraint,  so  that  he  might 
hold  the  reigns  of  government  unchecked.  Henry 
VIIL  had  a  strong  will,  but  singularly  subject  to  whom 
he  loved,  and  in  whom  he  had  confidence.  "The  best 
eulogy  on  Wolsey's  character,"  says  Lingard,  "is  to 
be  found  in  the  contrast  between  the  conduct  of  Henry 
before  and  after  Wolsey's  fall.'' 

Wolsey  had  more  ambition  than  faith.  His  life  was 
not  regulated  by  the  Word  of  God ;   his  morals  were 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  299 

not  pure.  In  this  respect  he  unfavorably  compares 
with  Ximenes ;  and  in  his  self-seeking,  he  reminds  us 
of  RicheHeu. 

One  crime  of  this  age,  and  for  long  ages  before,  was 
the  custom  of  permitting  one  man  to  hold  many  offices 
at  a  time.  Some  of  the  clergy  of  the  fourteenth  century 
held  as  many  as  twenty  benefices.  By  this  shameful 
system  the  popes  rewarded  their  officials  and  enriched 
themselves. 

This  custom  lasted  in  a  'modified  form  for  a  long 
time  after  the  Reformation.  Simony  prevailed  in  Wol- 
sey's  time  to  a  very  great  degree  ;  and  no  one  availed 
himself  more  of  this  bribery  than  Wolsey.  He  knew 
that  reform  was  needed  in  every  department  of  the 
ecclesiastical  state,  but  he  seemed  not  to  know  how 
much  he  himself  needed  reformation,  until  he  was 
despoiled  of  his  earthly  dignities,  and  was  about  to  die. 
Shakespeare  has  given  him  a  magnificent  place  on  the 
canvas  of  history.  His  words,  we  will  quote  a  few 
of  them,  will  help  us  to  form  a  J;rue  conception  of 
his  character : 

"  He  was  a  man  of  an  unbounded  stomach,  ever  ranking 
Himself  with  princes;  one,  that  by  suggestion, 
Tied  all  the  kingdom  ;  simony  was  fair  play  ; 
His  own  opinion  was  his  law :  i'  the  presence 
He  would  say  untruths :  and  be  ever  double. 
Both  in  his  words  and  meaning — 
Of  his  own  body  he  was  ill,  and  gave 
The  clergy  ill  example. 

This  Cardinal,  though  from 
An  humble  stock,  was  fashioned  to  much  honor 
From  his  cradle.     He  was  a  scholar  ;  a  ripe  and  good  one ; 
Exceeding  wise,  fair  spoken  and  persuading : 
Lofty  and  sour  to  them  that  loved  him  not ; 
But  to  those  men  that  sought  him,  sweet  as  summer. 


300  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

And  though  he  were  unsatisfied  in  getting, 

Which  was  a  sin,  yet  in  bestowing — 

He  was  most  princely :  ever  witness  for  him 

Those  twins  of  learning  Ipswich  and  Oxford  ! 

One  of  which   fell  with  him,  unwilling   to  outlive  the  good 

that  did  it ; 
Tke  other  though  unfinished,  yet  so  famous, 
So  excellent  in  art,  and  still  so  rising. 
That  Christendom  shall  ever  speak  his  virtue. 
His  overthrow  heaped  happiness  upon  him  ; 
For  then,  and  not  till  then,  he  felt  himself. 
And  found  the  blessedness  of  being  little  : 
And,  to  add  greater  honors  to  his  age, 
Than  man  could  give  him,  he  died  fearing  God. 

Archbishop  Warham,  of  Canterbury,  was  a  great 
and  good  man.  He  saw  the  necessity  of  reform,  but 
shrank  from  the  steps  necessary  to  accompHsh  it,  and 
from  any  thought  of  secession  from  the  existing  state 
of  things.  Erasmus  speaks  of  him  as  a  favorer  of  the 
new  learning,  and  of  his  kindness  and  generosity  to 
himself.  Warham  resigned  the  office  of  Lord  Chancellor 
in  15 15.      Wolsey  succeded  him. 

Dean  Colet  was  one  of  the  most  fearless  and  inde- 
pendent men  of  his  time.  In  151 1  he  preached  before 
the  Convocation  of  Canterbury.  He  denounced  the 
sin  of  his  brethren ;  both  priests  and  bishops,  he  said, 
were  too  much  engaged  with  secular  concerns ;  this 
brought  dishonor  on  the  priesthood  and  confounded 
it  with  the  laity ;  reformation,  he  cried,  must  begin 
with  the  bishops.  •  This  sermon  of  Colet's,  says  Mr. 
Geike,  in  his  work  on  the  Reformation,  was  the  first 
trumpet  blast  of  coming  events. 

Colet  endowed  St.  Paul's  school  for  the  free  educa- 
tion of  children  in  the  new  learning ;  he  had  also  dared 
to  translate  into  English  the  Lord's  Prayer,  with  com- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  3OI 

ments.  He  condemned  images,  auricular  confession, 
and  purgatory.  He  was  saved  from  prosecution  by  the 
regard  of  Warham  and  the  friendship  of  Erasmus.  The 
young  king,  too,  was  an  admirer  of  Colet. 

"  *At  the  accession  of  Henry  VHI.  the  EngHsh 
language  was  spoken  only  in  England.  The  people  of 
Wales  spoke  Welsh,  and  the  people  of  Cornwall  spoke 
Cornish.  Spain  was  then  the  greatest  European  power, 
and  France  was  nearly  her  equal.  The  Holy  Roman 
Empire  was  the  first  State  in  rank,  and  when  united 
with  the  Spanish  crown  under  Charles  V. ,  it  made  the 
Pope  apparently  the  Dictator  of  Europe." 

Prussia  was  then  a  desert ;  Holland  under  the  feet 
of  Spain. 

How  grand  and  impressive  is  the  change  that  three 
centuries  have  made !  England's  laws  and  language 
compass  the  world.  The  great  military  kingdoms  of 
Prussia  and  Russia  require  the  other  civilized  peoples 
of  the  earth  "to  stand  to  their  arms."  The  Pope  is 
restricted  to  his  own  ecclesiastical  domain.  Italy,  so 
long  the  battle-ground,  of  the  nations,  is  ruled  by  a 
lawful  monarch  in  the  City  of  the  Caesars,  and  has  her 
own  legislative  councils.  Some  portions  of  heathen 
India,  China  and  Africa  are  reaching  out  their  hands 
to  God. 

We  must  now  return  to  the  sixteenth  century. 
Romanists  have  said  much,  and  all  right-minded  people 
have  condemned  Henry's  divorce  from  Katharine,  his 
virtuous  wife  of  twenty  years ;  but  it  was  a  union  that 
should  never  have  been  sanctioned.  Henry's  conscien- 
tious scruples  on  this  subject  was  a  pretense^  but  the 

*  Geike.  " 


302  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

iniquity  was  not  all  on  his  side.  His  marriage  with 
his  brother's  widow  had  been  forced  upon  him  by  the 
politic  monarchs  of  Spain.  They  urged  the  pope 
Julius  II.  to  grant  a  bull  authorizing  a  marriage  which 
they  believed  to  be  contrary  to  the  Word  of  God. 
The  pope  at  first  refused  his  consent,  but  the  powerful 
influence  of  Spain  induced  him  to  yield.  Henry  had 
submitted  the  matter  to  the  two  leading  men  of  his 
council,  Fox,  bishop  of  Manchester,  and  archbishop 
Warham.-  The  former  took  it  into  consideration,  but 
the  latter  rejected  the  proposals  at  once  as  abhorrent 
to  religion  and  directly  opposed  to  the  letter  of  the 
Old  Testament.  These  doubts  and  scruples  as  to  the 
lawfulness  of  his  first  marriage  must  have  been  remem- 
bered by  him,  when  he  was  searching  for  a  pretext  to 
dissolve  the  union  of  which  he  had  become  tired,  and 
when  unbridled  passion  suggested  a  marriage  with 
another  —  with  Anne  Boleyn,  the  mother  of  Elizabeth. 

Some  historians  tell  us  that  Ferdinand  would  not 
consent  to  the  marriage  of  Arthur  with  his  daughter 
until  all  other  pretenders  to  the  throne  of  England 
were  removed.  To  remove  every  barrier,  Edward,  earl 
of  Warwick,  was  beheaded. 

The  Lady  Katherine  said,  when  she  knew  of  the 
trouble  that  awaited  her,  "that  she  had  not  offended, 
but  it  was  2l  judgment  of  God,  for  that  her  former  mar- 
riage was  made  in  blood." 

"The  king  Henry  VII.,"  says  Lord  Bacon,  "did 
bring  a  kind  of  malediction  on  this  marriage." 

Henry  VIII.  had  just  reached  his  eighteenth  year 
when  he  ascended  the  throne.  No  accession  ever  exci- 
ted higher  expectations  among  a  people  than  that  of 
Henry  VIII.    He  was  distinguished  for  personal  beauty 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  303 

and  for  vigor  and  skill  in  arms.  He  was  the  friend  of 
the  new  learning ;  the  admirer  and  protector  of  Colet 
and  Erasmus.  His  early  years  were  spent  amid  tourn- 
aments and  revelry. 

He  had  some  experience  in  war ;  he  joined  a  league 
of  the  Italian  States  to  drive  out  of  Italy  Charles  VHL, 
king  of  France.  He  succeeded  in  this  effort,  but  it 
was  a  fruitless  campaign  to  England.  In  this  war 
Ferdinand  secured  Navarre,  for  the  possession  of  which 
he  had  made  the  war,  and  then  treacherously  deserted 
his  son-in-law,  leaving  him  to  fight  alone.  Ferdinand 
promised  the  king  of  England  to  ratify  a  marriage 
between  his  grandson  Charles  and  Mary,  Henry's 
sister.  Soon  after,  however,  Henry  learned,  to  his 
disgust,  that  Charles  had  been  promised  to  a  young 
daughter  of  the  French  king. 

Henry's  heart  seemed  now  to  be  turning  against 
everything  Spanish.  The  alliance  with  Spain  was 
broken  off,  and  Mary,  a  girl  of  sixteen,  was  married  to 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  a  broken-down  man  of  fifty- 
three.  She  early  became  a  widow,  and  afterwards 
married  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  was  the  mother  of  the 
famous  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  Catharine  Grey. 

Never  had  pope  a  more  faithful  supporter  than  the 
king  of  England  at  this  time.  He  wrote  a  book  against 
the  so-called  heresies  of  Luther,  which  so  gratified  the 
pope  that  he  styled  Henry  "the  Defender  of  the 
Faith." 

Through  all  the  changes  of  his  terrible  career,  the 
king's  court  was  the  Jiotne  of  letters.  Even  as  a  boy 
his  son,  Edward  VI.,  was  a  fair  scholar  in  both  the 
classical  languages.  His  daughter  Mary  wrote  good  Latin 


304  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

letters.  Elizabeth,  who  spoke  French  and  Italian  as 
fluently  as  English,  began  every  day  with  an  hour's 
reading  in  the  Greek  Testament,  together  with  the 
tragedies  of  Sophocles  or  the  orations  of  Demosthenes.* 
Henry's  ministers,  much  as  they  differed  on  many  sub- 
jects, all  agreed  in  the  protection  and  encouragement 
of  the  culture  around  them. 

Julius  II.,  who  had  passed  much  of  his  life  in 
camps,  died  in  15 12.  Some  of  his  cardinals,  relying 
on  the  help  of  Louis,  king  of  France,  summoned  a 
council  at  Pisa  to  curb  the  madness  of  Julius,  and 
to  deliberate  on  measures  for  a  general  reformation 
of  the  gross  corruptions  of  the  Church.  Julius  called 
a  counter-council  at  his  Lateran  palace  in  15  12  to  annul 
the  acts  of  the  council  of  Pisa.  During  its  session,  or 
shortly  thereafter,  this  pope  was  called  to  a  higher 
tribunal. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Leo  X.,  who  gave  a  great 
impulse  to  the  cultivation  of  letters  and  the  patronage 
of  art.  Julius  II.  had  commenced  St.  Peter's  Church 
at  Rome ;  Leo  now  devoted  his  energies  to  the  prose- 
cution of  this  work.  With  such  a  coadjutor  as  Michael 
Angelo,  this  crowning  work  of  architecture  made  ele- 
gant progress.  But  money  was  an  important  factor  in 
this  splendid  enterprise. 

This  want  gave  rise  to  the  embassy  of  Tetzel 
through  Germany  to  make  sale  of  Indulgences.  How 
this  shameful  traffic  opened  the  eyes  of  Luther,  and 
enabled  him  to  probe  deeply  into  the  ulcerous  con- 
dition of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  is  known  to  all  readers 
of  history. 


*  Green's  History  of  the  English  People. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  3O5 

The  sale  of  Indulgences  was  not  a  new  thing.  In 
what  are  called  the  Jubilee  years,  this  lucrative  inven- 
tion had  been  much  used.  In  1300,  all  who  came  to 
Rome  and  spent  there  fifteen  days,  were  promised  the 
forgiveness  of  their  sins.  This  brought  so  much  money 
into  Rome,  that  Jubilees  were  repeated  every  twenty- 
fifth  year. 

Julius  II.  had  offered  this  easy  way  of  remission  of 
sin  to  all  who  contributed  to  St.  Peter's.  "It  was 
given  out  that  the  infinite  merits  of  Christ,  and  the 
excess  of  the  good  works  of  the  saints,  beyond  those 
needed  for  their  own  salvation,  formed  a  treasury  from 
which  the  Church  might  draw  for  the  benefit  of  any 
one  on  special  conditions."  Our  Lord  declared  that 
after  we  have  done  all,  we  are  unprofitable  servants ; 
but  the  church  at  Rome  in  the  sixteenth  century 
taught  another  gospel. 

Tetzel  and  his  assistants  roused  the  public  indigna- 
tion by  their  shameful  immorality  as  well  as  by  their 
absurd  teachings.  On  the  31st  of  October  Martin 
Luther,  who  was  soon  to  become  the  great  Reformer 
of  the  World,  then  a  University  professor,  nailed  to 
the  door  of  the  Church  of  All  Saints,  at  Wittemberg, 
a  challenge  of  the  whole  system  of  Indulgences.  ^ 

When  Luther  was  first  sent  to  Rome,  in  15 10,  by 
his  monastery,  his  soul  was  full  of  reverence  *  for  the 


"  Blessed  Rome !  he  cried,  as  he  entered  the  gate.  Alas!  the  Rome 
of  reality  was  far  from  blessed.  The  name  of  religion  was  there.  The 
thinnest  veil  was  spread  over  the  utter  disbelief  with  which  God  and 
Christ  were  at  heart  regarded.  There  was,  culture.  It  was  the  Rome 
of  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo;  but  to  the  poor  German  monk 
who  had  come  there  to  find  relief  for  his  suffering  soul,  what  was 
culture  ?  " — Froude. 


306  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

city  of  which  St.  Paul  had  spoken.  He  thought  of  the 
martyrs  of  the  early  Church.  On  arriving,  he  fell  on 
his  knees,  raised  his  hands  to  heaven  and  exclaimed, 
"  Hail,  holy  Rome  !  "  But  alas  !  he  soon  perceived 
that  he  was  in  a  city  of  unbelievers.  Christianity 
seemed  forgottea  in  the  centre  of  the  Christian  world. 

In  the  year  15  17  Martin  Luther,  a  monk  of  Saxony, 
of  the  town  of  Eisleben,  and  belonging  to  the  order  of 
Augustinian  Eremites,  which  was  one  of  the  four 
mendicant  orders,  opposed  himself  alone  to  the  whole 
Romish  power.  He  was  a  professor  of  theology  in  the 
University  of  Wittemberg,  which  Frederic  the  Wise, 
elector  of  Saxony,  had  established  a  few  years  before. 
Leo  X.  was  now  at  the  head  of  the  Church.  Maximil- 
ian L  of  Austria  governed  the  German  empire,  to 
which  Charles  V.  was  soon  after  elected.  Frederic 
ruled  over  Saxony.  Henry  VHL  was  king  of  Eng- 
land. Francis  L  was  king  of  France.  All  these 
crowned  heads  were  men  of  unusual  ability ;  it  was  a 
time,  as  we  have  already  said,  of  great  enthusiasm  in 
learning  and  literature. 

Luther  was  born  in  1483.  at  Eisleben.  His  father 
was  a  miner  of  Mansfield.  His  celebrated  son  attended 
the  schools  of  Magdeburg  and  Eisenach  ;  he  studied 
scholastic  philosophy  and  jurisprudence  at  Erfurt,  and 
read  also  the  ancient  Latin  authors.  While  at  Erfurt 
he  was  much  impressed  by  the  sudden  death  of  an  inti- 
mate friend  killed  by  lightning. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  307 


CHAPTER   XXXIII. 

MELANCHTHON ZUINGLIUS LUTHER. 

Luther  was  stunned  by  the  electric  bolt  that  killed 
his  friend,  and  now  awakened  to  a  deeper  sense  of  the 
preciousness  of  the  soul  and  his  duty  to  his  fellow- 
men.  He  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  a  religious 
life.  With  this  view,  which  was  not  in  accordance 
with  his  father's  wishes,  he  joined  the  rigid  order  of 
Augustinian  Eremites.  His  vicar  general  seeing  his 
ability,  sent  him  to  Wittemberg  to  teach  philosophy 
and  theology.  He  soon  discovered  the  defects  of  the 
scholastic  system,  and  began  to  reject  human  authori- 
ties in  matters  of  religion.  He  was  doctor  of  divinity 
in  15 12,  and  then  applied  himself  assiduously  to  He- 
brew and  Greek.  John  von  Stanpitz  was  his  vicar 
general.  He  wrote  his  own  language  with  greater 
purity,  elegance  and  force  than  any  German  author  of 
that  age.  His  translation  of  the  Bible  first  appeared 
in  1534.  His  faults  were  the  faults  of  a  warm,  earnest^ 
nature,  and  the  effects  of  the  education  and  of  the 
times  in  which  he  lived.  It  is  well  known  that  he 
answered  his  opposers  with  too  much  acrimony,  and 
sometimes  with  personal  abuse.  His  own  soul 
was  deeply  penetrated  with  the  truths  he  em- 
braced. He  had  witnessed  the  working  of  "the  mys- 
tery of  iniquity"  at  Rome.  He  knew  the  fatal  influ- 
ence of  falsehood,  and  this  seemed  to  deprive  his  im- 
petuous, sincere   mind  of  the  patience  and  meekness 


308  ANNALS    OF  THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

that  SO  greatly  adorn  it.  In  many  instances  he  be- 
heved  that  he  was  contending  with  hypocrites  or  half- 
hearted Christians.  He  was,  however,  the  sun  of  the 
Reformation,  and  his  defects  were  spots  that  could  not 
hide  or  obscure  the  warmth  and  brilliancy  of  his  light. 

We  are  told  by  some  writers  that  in  the  early  part 
of  his  career  in  the  convent,  his  remorse  for  sin 
w^as  so  great  that  one  of  his  brother  monks  pointed  out 
to  him  a  cardinal  doctrine  of  the  creed,  the  forgiveness 
of  sins  ;  also  read  with  him  in  the  Scriptures  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith,  which  was  to  him  ever  afterwards  the 
central  doctrine  of  his  creed. 

Staupitz  was  probably  the  monk  that  enlightened 
Luther  when  he  was  in  his  great  spiritual  trouble.  It 
is  known  that  he  approved  of  Luther's  theses  against 
the  papal  indulgences,  and  that  he  demanded  at  Augs- 
burg that  Luther  should  not  be  condemned  unheard. 
It  is  comforting  to  know  that,  notwithstanding  the  cor- 
ruption and  infidelity  of  this  age,  there  was  still  "a 
little  flock  "  that  held  the  truth  and  practiced  it.  Had 
it  not  been  for  the  great  celebrity  of  Luther,  we  should 
probably  have  never  heard  of  the  humble  faith  of  the 
monks  of  the  Augustinian  monastery  at  Erfurt. 

In  Luther's  controversy  with  Tetzel,  he  was  ap- 
plauded by  the  best  part  of  Germany  ;  but  there  were 
many  sycophants  who  cried  out  against  him.  Leo  X. 
at  first  seemed  to  disregard  Luther's  arguments  and 
opposition,  but  being  informed  by  the  emperor  that 
Germany  was  much  agitated  upon  this  question,  he 
summoned  Luther  to  appear  at  Rome  and  take  his 
trial.  Frederic  of  Saxony  interposed,  and  requested 
that  Luther's  cause  should  be  heard  in  Germany.  The 
pontiff  yielded  and   ordered  Luther  to  appear  before 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  3O9 

his  legate,  Cardinal  Cajetan,  at  Augsburg,  and  there  to 
defend  his  doctrines  and  conduct.  Cajetan  was  a  Do- 
minican. The  Dominican  order  and  the  Augustinian 
seem  to  have  been  inimical  to  each  other.  A  more 
unfit  person  than  Cajetan  could  not  have  been  selected. 
The  cardinal  required  Luther  to  revoke  the  errors  in 
his  theses — namely,  that  there  was  not  any  treasury 
of  the  merits  of  the  saints  at  Rome  from  which  the  pope 
could  dispense  indulgences,  and  that  without  faith  no 
forgiveness  of  sin  could  be  obtained  from  God.  Lu- 
ther held  fast  to  his  opinions.  The  cardinal,  though 
a  learned  man,  was  no  biblical  scholar,  and  could  not 
produce  any  proofs  in  refutation  of  Luther's  doctrine. 
When  Cajetan  threat-med  him  with  ecclesiastical  cen- 
sures, Luther  appealed  from  the  pontiff  ill-informed  to 
the  same  better  informed. 

The  Romish  court  perceived  its  mistake  in  the  ap- 
pointment of  Cajetan,  and  appointed  another  legate  to 
confer  with  Luther.  This  legate  persuaded  Luther  to 
write  to  the  pope,  in  which  he  promised  that  he  would 
be  silent  if  his  enemies  remained  so. 

This  was  the  period,  however,  of  many  literary 
combats.  Eckius,  a  famous  papal  theologian  of  this 
time,  disputed  with  Cardostadt  *  on  the  subject  of  free 
will,  but  the  disputants  accomplished  nothing.  Luther 
then  engaged  with  Eckius  in  a  contest  respecting  the 
supremacy  and  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiff  (a  ques- 
tion far  more  easy  to  settle),  but  the  literary  combat- 
ants referred  the  decision  to  the  universities  of  Paris 
and  Erfurt.  Eckius  was  forever  after  the  enemy  of 
Luther.      But  among  the  witnesses  of  this  dispute  was 


*  A  friend  of  Luther. 


3IO  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

one  who  became  the  second  reformer,  next  to  Luther, 
in  Germany.  This  person  was  Melanchthon.  He  had 
studied  at  Heidelberg,  and  afterwards  became  Profes- 
sor of  Greek  at  Wittemberg.  He  taught  and  wrote 
and  debated  in  furtherance  of  the  same  objects  with 
Luther,  but  with  more  mildness  and  gentleness  than 
he.  Melanchthon  composed  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
and  the  apology  for  it.  He  was  an  active  but  gentle 
reformer. 

While  these  controversies  were  agitating  Germany, 
and  shaking  the  very  throne  of  the  pontiff  at  Rome,  a 
very  bold,  erudite  reformer  appeared  at  Zurich,  in 
Switzerland.  Ulrich  Zwingle  was  a  canon  and  priest. 
Zwingle,  it  is  said,  commenced  to  preach  before  Lu- 
ther contended  with  the  pope.  He  perhaps  discovered 
the  corruptions  of  the  church  somewhat  earlier.  He 
had  contended  in  his  courts  with  an  emissary  of  like 
kind  with  Tetzel.  Both  began  gradually  without  any 
concert,  to  cast  off  from  the  church  "the  wood,  hay 
and  stubble"  that  had  gathered  over  the  divine  and 
hoary  edifice  in  the  flight  of  ages.  Luther  had  a  wider 
field  of  action  than  Zuinglius  (as  he  is  sometimes 
called).  The  latter  moved  only  in  the  narrow  circle  of 
a  single  canton  in  Switzerland.  Zwingle  was  a  ripe 
classical  scholar.  He  studied  diligently,  too,  the  emi- 
nent fathers  of  the  Church,  as  Ambrose,  Augustine, 
and  Chrysostom,  and  pressed  upon^  his  students  the 
study  of  Hebrew,  but  inculcated  with  force  that  the 
Bible  was  the  only  standard  of  religious  truth.  Luther 
and  his  followers  had  long  and  severe  contests  with 
Zwingle  and  the  reformed,*  respecting  the  corporeal 


♦The  disciples  of  Zuinglius. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  3II 

presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist.  This  difference 
of  opinion  caused  much  aHenation  and  prejudice  be- 
tween the  two  bodies  during  the  whole  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

The  Lutherans  beHeving  in  what  Luther  called 
co7tsiibstantiation ;  he  believed  in  the  presence  of  Christ 
in  the  elements,  but  not  in  their  change  or  transubstan- 
tiation.  The  Zuinglians  regarded  the  Eucharistic  sacri- 
fice or  offering  simply  as  a  memorial. 

In  1524,  the  Council  of  Zurich  reformed  the  public 
worship  according  to  the  advice  of  Zwingle.  He  con- 
tinued to  guide  his  flock  until  October,  153 1,  when  an 
army  from  the  popish  cantons  marched  against  Zwingle. 
Zwingle,  according  to  the  usage  of  his  country,  bore 
the  standard  that  attempted  to  repel  them.  The 
enemy  were  victorious ;  Zwingle  was  slain,  and  his 
body  cut  to  pieces  and  burned  to  ashes. 

Overcome,  it  is  said,  by  the  importunity  of  the  Do- 
minicans, Leo  X.  issued  the  first  bull  against  Luther 
on  the  15th  of  June,  1520.  As  soon  as  Luther  heard 
of  this  first,  sentence  of  the  pontiff  against  him,  he  ap- 
pealed to  the  supreme  tribunal  of  the  future  council. 
Believing  that  his  appeal  would  be  disregarded  at  Rome, 
he  determined  to  proclaim  his  secession  from  the  Rom- 
ish community  by  a  public  act.  He  caused,  on  the 
loth  of  December,  1520,  afire  to  be  kindled  without 
the  walls  of  his  city,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  vast 
multitude,  he  committed  to  the  flames  the  bull  issued 
against  him,  together  with  a  copy  of  the  pontifical 
canon  law.  In  this  way  he  publicly  signified  that  he 
would  no  longer  be  a  subject  of  the  Roman  pontiff.  Lu- 
ther withdrew,  however,  only  from  the  Romish  Church 
which  looks  upon  the  pontiff  as  infallible;    not  from 


312  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  church  universal,  the  sentence  of  which,  pronounced 
in  a  legitimate  and  free  council,  he  did  not  refuse  to 
obey. 

Many  Roman  Catholics,  who  were  attached  to  the 
liberties  of  Germany,  looked  upon  this  bold  act  of 
Luther  without  offense.*  In  diffusing  the  principles  of 
the  Reformation  through  Germany,  Luther  had  the 
aid  of  other  excellent  men  in  various  parts  of  Europe, 
and  especially  was  he  assisted  by  the  doctors  of  Wit- 
temberg  and  the  great  learijing  of  Melanchthon.  Mean- 
while, in  1 5 19,  Maximilian  L  died,  and  his  grandson, 
Charles  v..  King  of  Spain,  was  elected  his  successor. 
Leo  X.  reminded  the  new  emperor  of  Germany  that 
he  had  assumed  the  place  of  advocate  and  defender  of 
the  Church,  and  called  upon  him  to  inflict  punishment 
upon  Martin  Luther,  a  rebellious  member  of  the 
Church. 

Frederick  IX.  counseled  Charles  to  proceed  with 
great  caution.  Charles  felt  under  greater  obligations 
to  Frederic  than  to  any  other  German  Prince.  In 
order,  therefore,  to  gratify  this  friend,  and  also  the 
pontiff,  he  determined  to  summon  Luther  to  appear  be- 
fore the  diet,  which  would  assemble  at  Worms,  before 
the  passing  of  any  decree  against  him. 

Luther  appeared  at  Worms,  protected  by  a  safe- 
conduct  from  the  Emperor,  and  boldly  pleaded  his  cause 
before  the  diet.  Some  of  his  friends  regarded  it  f  as  a 
perilous  undertaking.  When  his  friend  Spalatin  warned 
him  of  his  danger,  he  replied  "he  would  go  thither  \i 
there  were  as  many  devils  there  as  there  were  tiles  upon 
the  houses."     He  was  conducted  in  his  monkish  dress 


*  Mosheim.     t  His  journey  to  Worms. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       313 

by  Von  Pappenheim,  the  marshal  of  the  empire,  to 
the  assembled  diet.  He  was  asked  two  questions — 
namely,  whether  he  was  the  author  of  the  books  laid 
upon  the  table  before  him, and  whether  he  would  recall 
any  of  the  opinions  contained  in  them.  To  the  first 
question  he  answed  yes.  To  answer  the  second  ques- 
tion, he  waited  until  the  next  day.  He  answered  by 
making  distinctions. 

Some  of  his  writings,  he  said,  related  to  a  Chris- 
tian's faith  and  life;  others  were  directed  against  the 
Papacy,  and  others  against  private  individuals  who  de- 
fended the  Romish  tyranny.  He  could  not  renounce 
the  first,  because  even  his  enemies  agreed  they  con- 
tained much  good  matter ;  nor  could  he  renounce  the 
second,  because  that  would  be  lending  support  to  papal 
tyranny  ;  as  to  the  third,  he  acknowledged  he  had  often 
been  too  vehement.  The  official  said  to  him,  Vou  must 
have  erred,  because  you  have  contradicted  the  Pope 
and  council.  He  answered.  The  Pope  and  the  council 
have  often  contradicted  themselves.  He  closed  with 
this  declaration  :  *  "  Here  I  stand.  I  can  say  no  more. 
God  help  me.  Amen."  Neither  promises  or  menaces 
could  move  him.  When  called  upon  to  renounce  his 
opinions,  and  to  become  reconciled  to  the  Pope,  he 
said  he  could  never  yield,  unless  convinced  of  error  by 
proofs  from  Holy  Scripture  and  sound  reason.  He  ob- 
tained leave  from  the  emperor  to  return  home  unmo- 
lested, but  Prince  Frederic,  fearing  mischief  should  befall 
him,  caused  him  to  be  intercepted   near  Eisenach  by 


*"  There  on  the  raised  dais  stood  the  sovereign  of  half  the  world. 
On  either  side  were  the  ministers  of  state,  archbishops,  the  princes  of 
the  empire,  gathered  together  to  judge  the  son  of  a  poor  miner,  who 
had  made  the  world  ring  with  his  name." 


314  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

persons  in  disguise,  and  conducted  to  the  castle  of 
Wartburg  ;  in  that  castle,  which  he  called  his  Patmos, 
he  lay  ten  months,  beguiling  the  time  with  writing  and 
study. 

The  emperor  and  Luther  never  met  again.  The 
emperor,  many  years  after  the  debate  at  Worms, 
and  after  the  death  of  Luther,  went  to  Wittem- 
berg,  at  the  head  of  his  army.  He  desired  to  be 
conducted  to  Luther's  tomb.  When  some  one  sug- 
gested that  the  body  should  be  taken  up  and  burned 
at  the  stake  in  the  market  place,  Charles  nobly  replied  : 
"I  war  not  with  the  dead. "  His  body  lay  in  the  grave, 
but  there  was  scarcely  any  part  of  Europe  where  the 
light  of  the  religious  reformation  by  Luther  did  not 
shed  its  radiance.  While  Luther  remained  in  the  castle 
of  Wartburg  (ten  months)  the  monasteries  were 
broken  up.  The  old  ecclesiastical  institutions  of  Ger- 
many were  crumbling. 

The  Elector  of  Saxony,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse, 
and  other  princes  declared  for  the  reformation.  The 
Protestants  had  a  majority  in  the  diet  and  controlled 
the  force  of  the  empire.  During  Luther's  retirement 
at  Wartburg  he  translated  the  Bible.  A  diet  at  Spire 
in  1526  resulted  most  favorably  to  the  reformers.  Fer- 
dinand, the  brother  of  the  Emperor  Charles,  presided 
at  this  diet.  The  emperor,  by  his  envoys,  required 
that  all  contentions  about  religion  should  cease,  but 
said  that  the  edict  at  Worms  against  Luther  should  be 
confirmed.  Many  of  the  princes  declared  that  a  gen- 
eral council  ought  to  be  assembled  to  take  cognizance 
of  this  edict.  The  emperor  was  at  this  time  so  per- 
plexed with  his  French,  Spanish,  and  Italian  affairs, 
that  he  could  not  give,  during  several  years,  much  at- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  315 

tention  to  the  affairs  of  Germany  or  to  the  subject  of 
religion. 

Clement  VII.,  fearing  the  power  of  the  emperor  in 
Italy,  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Francis  I.  and  the 
Venetians  against  the  emperor.  This  so  inflamed  the 
resentment  of  Charles,  that  he  made  war  upon  the 
Pope  in  Italy,  captured  the  city  of  Rome  in  1527,  by 
his  General  Charles,  of  Bourbon,  and  shut  up  the  pon- 
tiff in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo.  The  Lutherans  im- 
proved this  opportunity  to  extend  their  cause.  It  was 
about  this  time  that  the  Elector  of  Saxony  caused  a 
visitation  of  the  churches  throughout  his  dominions. 
Luther  was  the  clerical  writer  for  Saxony,  and  Melanch- 
thon  for  Misnia.  They  were  to  examine  into  the  con- 
dition of  the  parishes,  schools,  monasteries  and  cathe- 
drals, with  power  to  make  any  changes  that  were  neces- 
sary to  their  well-being.  Luther,  impressed  with  the 
ignorance  of  both  clergy  and  laity,  busied  himself, 
after  his  return  home,  in  writing  catechisms  for  their 
use. 

How  blessed  is  the  work  of  those  who  strive  to 
elevate  the  moral  and  intellectual  condition  of  their 
fellow-creatures.  This  tranquillity  was  interrupted  by 
the  second  diet  of  Spire,  in  1529.  The  emperor  was 
anxious  to  make  a  compromise  with  the  Pontiff,  Clem- 
ent VII.  The  decree  which  had  been  passed  three 
years  before,  that  every  prince  should  regulate  religious 
matters  in  his  own  territories  as  he  saw  fit,  was  now 
rex'oked,  and  all  changes  declared  unlawful  until  the  de- 
cision of  the  council  should  determine  what  was  best 
to  be  done.  The  reformers  understood  perfectly  that 
a  legitimate  and  free  council  could  not  be  obtained 
from  the  pontiff.     They,  therefore,  at  this  second  diet 


3l6  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

at  Spire  remonstrated  and  protested  against  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  decree  that  each  prince  should  have  the 
liberty  to  regulate  affairs  in  his  own  district.  The 
Landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  other 
patrons  of  the  reformation /w/^.y/^^^ and  appealed  to  the 
Emperor  and  a  future  council.  Hence  originated  the 
name  of  Protestants  borne  from  this  time  onward  by  all 
who  left  the  communion  of  the  Roman  pontiff.  As  no 
good  formula  of  the  doctrines  professed  by  the  follow- 
ers of  Luther  now  existed,  Luther  was  requested  by 
John,  elector  of  Saxony,  to  prepare  a  brief  summary 
of  his  doctrines. 

Luther  had  drawn  up,  in  1529,  seventeen  articles 
which  had  been  agreed  to  in  the  convention  of  Schwa- 
bach.  He  exhibited  these  to  the  Elector  at  Torgau, 
hence  they  were  called  the  articles  of  Torgau.  From 
these  articles  as  the  basis  of  the  Lutheran  formula, 
Philip  Melanchthon  was  requested  by  the  Protestant 
German  princes  (holding  consultation  with  Luther  all 
the  time),  to  draw  up  that  confession  of  faith  which  is 
known  as  the  Augsburg  Confession.  The  greatest  hin- 
drance to  a  cordial  union  between  the  Saxon  and  Hel- 
vetic, or  Swiss,  reformers  was  their  disagreement  in  re- 
gard to  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  appointed  a  conference 
between  Luther  and  Zwingle  and  other  learned  doctors, 
to  be  held  at  Marburg  in  1529.  They  debated  four 
days  together.  They  agreed  .satisfactorily  together  as 
regarded  the  divinity  of  the  Saviour,  the  efficacy  of  the 
divine  word,  original  sin,  etc.  ;  but  they  could  not  recon- 
cile their  differences  with  regard  to  the   Last  Supper. 

How  much  wiser  now  seem  to  us,  on  this  subject, 
the    reformers   of    the    Church    of    England?      They 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       31/ 

did  not  attempt,  in  this  great  mystery,  to  analyze  so 
much  as  the  German  reformers.  They  adopted  the 
words  of  our  Lord  and  the  scriptural  teachings  con- 
cerning it,  leaving  the  sense  or  interpretation  of  the 
words  to  each  individual  conscience.  It  plainly  teaches, 
however,  that  the  bread  and  wine  are  not  changed,  but 
consecrated  to  a  holy  purpose. 

As  early  as  1523  there  were  multitudes  in  France 
opposed  to  the  principles  and  laws  of  the  Romish 
Church.  Margaret,  Queen  of  Navarre,  sister  of 
Francis  I.,  was  pleased  with  the  principles  of  the  re- 
formed religion.  She  took  under  her  protection  pious 
and  learned  men,  who  formed  religious  societies  in  dif- 
ferent places.  Le  Fevre  and  Rouss<>l  betook  them- 
selves to  Navarre,  where  they  did  not  openly  break 
with  the  Romish  Church,  but  they  taught  the  doctrines 
of  the  reformers.  Viut  cruel  persecutions  soon  arose. 
Margaret  was  forbidden  to  encourage  any  innovations. 
At  a  convention  held  in  Smalcald,  in  1537,  another 
summary  of  the  religious  faith  of  the  German  reform- 
ers was  drawn  up.  This  writing  of  Luther  is  called 
the  articles  of  Smalcald.  They  were  drawn  up  in  the 
German  language.  These  articles  cover  twenty-eight 
pages.  The  first  part  contained  four  articles,  in  which 
the  Protestants  professed  to  agree  entirely  with  the  Pa- 
pists. These  four  were  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation, 
Passion  and  Ascension  of  Christ. 

On  other  points  of  doctrine  there  was  great  differ- 
ence between  the  Papists  and  Lutherans.  When  the 
Protestants  signed  the  articles  of  Smalcald,  "  Melanch- 
thon  annexed  a  reservation  to  his  signature,  purporting 
that  he  could  admit  of  a  Pope  provided  he  would  allow 
the  gospel  to  be  preached  in  its  purity,  and  would  give 


3l8       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

up  his  pretensions  to  a  divine  right  to  rule,  and  would 
found  his  claims  wholly  on  expediency  and  human  com- 
pact."  This  is  annexed  to  the  articles.  A  young 
scholar  from  Oxford,  England,  heard  of  Luther's  do- 
ings at  Wittemberg.  He  soon  directed  his  course  to 
the  sacred  city  of  the  reformation.  Students  of  all 
nations  were  ^'  flocking  to  Wittemberg.  Tyndale 
was  the  young  Oxford  student  to  whom  we  have  alluded. 
Luther  advised  him  to  translate  there  the  gospels  and 
epistles.  The  press  which  Tyndale  established  at  Ant- 
werp, where  he  was  joined  by  a  few  students  from  Cam- 
bridge, who  was  soon  busy  with  his  versions  of  the  Script- 
ures, and  with  reprints  of  the  tracts  of  Wycliffe  and 
Luther. 

Some  one  has  said  that  without  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment of  Erasmus  the  reformation  would  have  been 
impossible.  It  is  certainly  true  that  Tyndale's  English 
Bibles  and  Testaments  were  of  inestimable  value  to  the 
people  of  England.  These  volumes  of  Tyndale  were 
smuggled  over  to  England  and  circulated  among  the 
poorer  and  trading  classes  through  the  agency  of  an 
association  of  "Christian  Brethren."  They  found 
their  way  to  the  universities,  where  the  intellectual  im- 
pulse given  by  the  new  learning  was  quickening  relig 
ious  speculation.  The  rapid  diffusion  of  Tyndale's 
works  roused  Wolsey  at  length  to  action. 

At  Oxford  the  brethren  were  seized  and  put  in 
prison.  In  London  a  large  number  of  Testaments 
were  burned.  But  in  spite  of  the  panic  of  the  Prot- 
estants, who  fled  in  crowds  over  the  sea,  but  little 
severity  was  exercised  until  after  Wolsey's  fall,  when 
forbearance  was  thrown  aside. 


ANNALS    OF    THE   CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  3I9 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

It  has  often  been  said  by  the  frivolous,  who  are 
incapable  of  tracing  effects  to  causes,  that  Henry  VIII. 
was  the  author  of  the  Reformation  of  the  Church  of 
England.  The  great  predisposing  cause  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  England,  as  in  other  countries,  was  the 
corruption  of  the  Church,  both  in  its  docrines  and  in 
its  practice.*^  Many  honest,  true  men  within  her  fold 
had  felt  the  need  of  purification,  and  the  great  neces- 
sity of  a  return  to  the  primitive  source  of  spiritual  life, 
in  the  oracles  of  God.  Henry  VIII.  was  not  one  of 
these.  He  was  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  papacy  and 
all  its  claims,  until  it  contradicted  his  will.  He  was  "a 
Defender  of  the  Faith  "  as  it  then  existed.  All  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland  were  aflame  at  this  time  with  the 
teachings  of  Luther  and  Zuinglius.  Oxford  scholars 
had  gone  to  Wittemberg,  they  had  seen  Luther,  they 
had  set  up  printing-presses  in  Antwerp  and  in  other 
places,  they  had  returned  to  England,  laden  with  their 
versions  of  the  Scriptures,  especially  with  the  Gospels 
and  Epistles.     Through  the  agency  of  associations,  the 


*  The  deliverance  of  the  Church  of  England  from  the  power  of  the 
papacy  was  effected  partly  by  convocation  and  parliament.  The 
papacy,  in  its  greed  of  gold,  drained  the  kingdom  annually  of  large 
sums  of  money.  Convocation  petitioned  the  king  that  this  drain 
should  be  stopped.  The  extracts  from  this  petition  are  still  extant, 
says  Blunt,  in  the  British  Museum.  A  book  put  forth  in  1537,  called 
"  The  Institution  of  a  Christian  Man,"  did  good  work  for  the  Refor- 
mation. Forty-six  of  the  leading  men  in  England  had  published  it.  It 
explained  the  creed,  sacraments,  Ten  Commandments,  etc. 


320  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

work  of  these  zealous,  God-fearing  men  was  spread  over 
the  country.  They  found  their  way  to  the  universities. 
Cambridge  had  already  won  a  name  for  heresy  ;  the 
intellectual  impetus  given  by  the  new  learning  was 
quickening  religious  thought  both  here  *  and  at  Oxford. 
Henry  cared  nothing  for  religion,  as  his  wicked  acts 
most  plainly  prove ;  but  he  was  fond  of  learning,  fond 
of  theology.  He  was  a  pedant,  and  loved  to  discuss 
doctrinal  points.  He  was  surrounded  by  learned  men, 
with  reforming  views.  Latimer  (afterwards  burned  at 
the  stake)  was  the  court  preacher,  and  Cranmer,  his 
private  counselor,  singularly  intent  upon  the  instruction  of 
the  people,  was  watching  every  opportunity  that  he  might 
obtain  from  his  tyrannical  monarch  the  privilege  of 
translating  portions  of  the  church  service  into  the 
English  tongue.  A  great  literary  reform  was  in  prog- 
ress. Some  who  were  not  thirsting  to  drink  at  "the 
fountain  of  living  waters  "  were  yet  anxious  for  i7itel- 
lectiial  advancement. 

More,  Colet  and  Erasmus  were  styled  the  three 
Oxford  reformers.  Colet  was  a  doctrinal  reformer,  as 
well  as  a  literary  one.  He  was  taken  off  by  death 
before  the  time  came  that  tried  men's  souls,  and  some- 
times burned  their  bodies.  There  were  many  men  also 
of  low  estate  and  position,  who  dearly  loved  to  read 
any  books  that  taught  them  the  precious  practical  truths 
of  the  Bible. 

Henry  VHI.  was,  as  we  have  said,  fond  of  learning. 
He  was  a  sagacious  prince,  and  comprehended  some- 
what of  the  signs  of  the  times.  His  sympathy  with 
learning  therefore  disposed  him  to  listen  to  the  solicita- 

*  At  Cambridge. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  321 

tions  of  Cranmer,  in  his  great  desire   to  convert  into 
English  the  service  of  the  Church. 

But  he  Hved  and  died  a  Romanist,  as  the  existence 
of  the  six  Articles  proved.  In  his  rage  against  the 
pope  for  refusing  to  grant  him  a  divorce,  he  had  cast  off 
his  allegiance  to  him,  affecting  to  believe  what  the 
early  Church  did  iii  truth  believe,  that  the  bishop  of 
Rome  should  claim  no  priority  over  the  bishops  of 
other  metropolitan  cities,  and  to  restrict  himself  to 
ecclesiastical  affairs. 

We  see  in  the  history  of  this  world  how  our  Al- 
mighty Father  educes  good  from  evil  :  it  was  wicked 
passion  that  induced  Henry  VIII.  to  dissolve  the  bond 
that  connected  papal  Rome  with  his  kingdom  ;  yet  the 
friends  of  reform  hailed  it  with  joy,  knowing  that  the 
illegal  and  unrighteous  authority  that  had  so  long  inter- 
fered with  their  desire  to  purify  and  renovate  the 
Church,  was  ended. 

In  the  year  1525,  an  association  was  enrolled  in 
London  called  the  "Christian  Brothers."*  It  was 
composed  chiefly  of  poor  men,  tradesmen  and  artisans. 
There  were  a  few  of  the  clergy  with  them.  These  men 
employed  agents  to  go  up  and  down  the  country,  car- 
rying Testaments  and  tracts  with  them.  The  records^ 
of  the  bishops'  courts  in  the  early  part  of  this  century 
were  filled  with  accounts  of  prosecution  for  heresy. 
The  persecuted  were  men  and  women  who  rose  up 
against  the  masses,  the  pilgrimages  and  the  indulgences. 
These    things    had    become    intolerable.      They   had 

*  We  read  of  "  Christian  Brothers  "  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Tauler  and  Groote  were  distinguished  preachers  of  the  "  Brothers 
of  Common  Life."  Thomas  a  Kempis  united  with  some  of  these  in 
his  day,  and  was  of  like  spirit. 


322  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

learned  enough  of  the  truth  in  Wycliffe's  Testaments 
to  know  that  these  things  were  false. 

When  Wolsey  had  founded  the  great  college  at 
Oxford  (now  called  Christ  Church),  desiring  to  make 
his  magnificent  institution  as  perfect  as  art  could  make 
it,  he  had  not  only  sought  Professors  in  Rome,  and 
from  other  cities  in  Italy,  but  he  had  introduced  several 
students  from  Cambridge  represented  to  be  of  unusual 
promise.  These  students  were  deeply  imbued  with  the 
enthusiasm  of  Tyndale.  The  names  of  some  of  these 
were  Clark,  Frith,  Sumner,  Taverner  and  Garret.  The 
last  mentioned  was  a  secret  member  of  the  London 
society.  He  sought  all  such  young  men  as  were  given 
to  Hebrew,  Greek  and  Latin.  He  also  introduced  into 
Oxford  treasures  of  forbidden  books  imported  by  the 
"Christian  Brothers."  It  is  said  that  Wolsey  knew 
that  the  taint  of  heresy  rested  upon  some  of  these 
men,  but  thinking  they  were  unsubstantiated  rumors, 
allowed  them  not  to  weigh  against  ability  and  char- 
acter. These  men  were  in  the  habit  of  reading  the 
New  Testament  in  their  rooms,  especially  studying  St. 
Paul's  epistles.  They  had  a  gradually  increasing  circle 
of  interested  hearers  from  the  undergraduates  of  the 
University. 

After  these  students  of  the  Word  of  God  had  con- 
ferred together  about  six  months,  within  the  limits  of  the 
university,  suspicion  rested  upon  them.  Several  of 
these  were  imprisoned.  Garret  was  fiercely  pursued 
from  place  to  place  ;  but  falling  into  the  hands  of 
Wolsey,  he  refused  to  deliver  him  up.  Clark  died  of 
the  treatment  he  received  in  prison.  His  last  words 
are  recorded.  He  desired  the  communion,  but  was 
refused,  lest  the  holy  thing  should  be  profaned  by  the 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  323 

touch  of  a  heretic.  When  told  he  could  not  be  per- 
mitted to  have  it,  he*  said  :  "  Crede  est  majidiicdsti," 
"  Faith  is  the  communion."  Some  of  these  students 
recanted,  but  afterwards  repented  of  their  weakness, 
and  suffered  heroically  at  the  stake.  Of  such  men  as 
these  were  Bilney  and  Bainham.  Bilney  had  escaped 
through  Wolsey's  hands  in  1527,  but  in  1529  he  was 
again  cited  before  the  bishop  of  London.  Three  times 
he  refused  to  recant.  He  was  offered  another  chance, 
and  he  fell.  After  spending  two  years  in  misery  he 
began  to  preach  in  the  fields.  He  exposed  the  licen- 
tiousness of  some  of  the  priests,  and  this  formed  the 
ground  of  his  last  arrest.  He  still  believed  in  the  mass 
and  in  the  power  of  the  keys,  but  he  was  found  heter- 
odox on  the  papacy  and  the  mediation  of  the  saints. 
He  was  sent  to  the  stake  by  the  bishop  of  Norwich. 

The  crime  of  the  offenders  varied.  Sometimes  it 
was  a  denial  of  the  corporal  presence,  more  frequently 
a  denunciation  of  the  habits  of  some  of  the  clergy. 
It  is  said  that  Bilney  once  chose  T-atimer  for  his  con- 
fessor, that  he  might  confer  with  him,  and  that  Latimer 
said  that  Bilney  poured  a  flood  of  light  on  his  soul,  and 
called  him  the  instrument  whereby  God  called  him  to 
knowledge. 

Sir  Thomas  More  was  successor  to  Wolsey,  and 
under  him  the  fires  of  Smithfield  burned  more  fre- 
quently. ' '  With  Wolsey  heresy  was  an  error,  with 
More  it  was  a  crime."  Of  these  first  martyrs  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  VHL,  Mr.  Froude  says:  "  These  were 
the  first  Paladins  of  the  Reformation,  the  knights  who 
slew  the  dragons  and  the  enchanters,  and  who  made 

*  Froude. 


324  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  earth  habitable  for  flesh  and  blood."  They  were 
rarely  men  of  much  ability,  but  of  clear  sense  and 
honest  hearts.  Tyndale  was  a  remarkable  man,  and  so 
Clark  and  Smith  promised  to  become,  but  they  were 
cut  off.  William  Tyndale  lived  to  see  the  Bible,  for 
whose  translation  into  English  he  had  so  faithfully 
labored  in  exile,  carried  into  his  own  country  with  the 
will  of  tJie  king,  solemnly  recognized  (no  longer  a  hidden 
possession)  as  the  Word  of  God.  Tyndale  was  in 
Flanders  at  this  time.  He  was  denounced  to  the  regent 
by  an  English  fanatic,  who  had  enticed  him  to  leave' 
the  city  where  he  would  have  been  secure.  He  died 
the  martyr's  death  amid  smoke  and  flame.* 

Every  monastery,  every  parish  church  had  in  these 
superstitious  days  something  to  attract  the  interest  of 
the  people.  The  people  brought  offerings  to  the 
shrines  where  it  was  supposed  the  relics  were  of  the 
greatest  power.  The  clergy,  to  secure  the  offerings, 
had  invented  the  relics  and  invented  the  stories  of  the 
wonders. 

The  greatest  exposure  of  these  things  took  place  at 
the  visitation  of  the  religious  houses.  There  were 
images  of  the  Virgin  and  crucifixes  or  roods,  the 
virtues  of  which  many  had  begun  to  doubt.  There 
was  a  famous  crucifix  in  Boxley  in  Kent,  which  was 
said  to  smile  or  frown  as  its  worshipers  were  generous 
or  close-handed.  About  the  time  of  the  imprisonment 
of  Bainham  and  others,  four  young  men  in  the  vicinage 
of  Boxley  determined  to  experiment  on  the  virtues  of 
this  rood  or  crucifix.  They  carried  it  on  their  shoul- 
ders for  some  distance,  and,  feeling  no  resistance  from 

*  Froude. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  325 

the  idol,  they  fastened  some  tapers  to  it,  and  the  image 
was  soon  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ashes.  For  this  night's 
work,  three  of  these  young  men  swung  in  chains  (one 
having  made  his  escape)  on  the  scene  of  their  exploit. 

As  yet  but  two  men  of  the  highest  position  in  power 
and  ability  were  on  the  side  of  Protestantism.  But  we 
have  seen  the  upturnings  among  the  people  and  the 
tendencies  of  many  in  the  universities.  Three  editions 
of  Tyndale's  translation  in  English  were  sold  before 
1530.  The  king  now  gave  his  sanction  to  the  work. 
Cromwell  gave  a  license  to  Miles  Goverdale  to  go 
abroad,  and,  with  Tyndale's  help,  to  collect  and  edit  the 
scattered  portions;  and  in  1536  there  appeared  in 
London  the  first  complete  edition  of  the  English  Bible. 
It  was  dedicated  to  Henry  VIII.  Cranmer  and  Crom- 
well were  represented  on  a  portion  of  the  frontispiece 
as  presenting  the  Bible  to  kneeling  priests  and  laymen. 

"  I  came  not  to  send  peace  on  earth,  but  a  sword," 
was  fully  demonstrated  in  many  of  the  scenes  and  acts 
of  the  Reformation.  In  all  great  revolutions,  whether 
political  or  religious,  it  seems  the  destiny  of  nations  to 
be  baptized  in  blood.  The  state  of  England  in  1434 
seemed  very  critical.  There  was  evidently  much  disaf- 
fection and  discontent  among  the  people. 

Anne  Boleyn  had  interceded  for  others,  but  the 
time  soon  came  when  Queen  Anne  herself  had  to  die 
by  the  axe  of  the  headsman.  She  was  condemned  to 
die  on  a  false  charge.  She  left  one  child,  the  famous 
Queen  Elizabeth.  Anne  Boleyn  wrote  from  the  Tower 
a  letter,  which  is  still  preserved  in  the  British  Museum, 
in  which,  with  simple  earnestness,  she  declares  her 
innocence.  She  had  tried  to  influence  the  king  to  favor 
the  cause  of  the  Reformation  by  forming  a  union  with 


326       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

the  Protestants  of  Germany.  The  Protestants  of  Ger- 
many, including  Luther,  were  generally  hostile  to 
Henry.  But  Cromwell,  who  was  at  this  time  the  great 
and  energetic  leader  of  the  affairs  of  England,  seeing 
that  conspiracies  were  rife  in  England,  and  that  the 
throne  was  in  danger  from  the  ambition  of  some  parties 
and  from  the  fanaticism  of  others,  determined,  if  pos- 
sible, to  form  a  Protestant  League.  Parliament  in  1534 
adopted  a  variety  of  measures,  under  Cromwell's  lead, 
to  widen  the  separation  between  Rome  and  England. 
Convocation  declared  that  the  pope  had  no  more  au- 
thority in  England  than  any  other  bishop.  An  act  of 
supremacy  was  passed,  making  Henry  "head  of  the 
Church."  Oh,  dreadful  act!  Could  not  the  indepen- 
dence of  England  have  been  secured  in  some  other 
way  !  This  term  was  applied  to  him  simply  to  stop 
the  encroachments  of  spiritual  powers,  within  and  with- 
out the  realm.  It  was  a  symbol  of  the  independence  * 
of  England  ;   but  it  has  been  fearfully  misunderstood. 

A  distinction  should  be  carefully  drawn  between  the 
nonmiatioti  of  a  king  and  the  ordmation  by  the  clergy. 
As  early  as  1537,  the  reforming  clergy  instructed  the 
people  not  to  confound  the  presentation  of  a  monarch 
with  the  religious  aiitJiority  conferred  by  the  bishops  and 
clergy.  The  presentation  was  simply  a  nomination  to  a 
living  by  a  patron  ;  the  other  was  the  holy  rite  of  ordi- 


*  The  Annates  or  First-fruits  were  at  this  time  transferred  to  the 
crown  (1532).  They  were  afterwards  restored  to  the  Church  by  Queen 
Anne,  and  destined  to  the  support  of  the  poorer  livings.  A  late  writer 
on  "The  Property  of  the  Church  of  England"  says:  "The  property 
of  that  Church  is  not  the  property  of  the  state.  The  Church  of  En- 
gland, instead  of  being  maintained  by  the  state,  contributes  annually 
out  of  its  own  funds,  for  the  welfare  of  the  nation,  between  fifty  and 
fifty-five  millions  of  dollars." 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  32/ 

nation  conferred  by  an  authorized  clergy.  Henry  VIII. 
abused  the  supremacy  given  him  by  the  convocation  in 
putting  to  death  some  noble  men  who  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge his  headship  in  Church  affairs.  The  election 
or  nomination  of  the  bishops  by  the  chapters  of  the 
cathedrals  had  long  heen  formal,  and  their  appointment 
since  the  time  of  the  Edwards  had  been  practically 
made  by  the  papacy,  on  the  nomination  of  the  crown. 
The  privilege  of  election  was  still  left  to  the  chapters  of 
the  cathedral  churches,  but  they  were  compelled  to 
receive  the  candidate  chosen  by  the  king.  This  strange 
thing  has  lasted  until  the  present  time,  but  its  character 
is  wholly  changed.  The  nomination  of  bishops  ever 
since  the  accession  of  the  Georges  has  passed  from  the 
king  in  person  to  the  minister  who  represents  the  will 
of  the  people.  Practically,  therefore,  an  English  pre- 
late, among  all  the  prelates  of  the  world,  is  now  raised 
to  the  episcopate  by  the  same  popular  vote  which  raised 
Ambrose  to  the  episcopal  chair  at  Milan. 

But  the  policy  of  Cromwell  in  Henry  VIII. 's  time 
reduced  for  a  time  the  English  bishops  to  mere  de- 
pendents on  the  crown.  Cromwell,  as  Vicar-General, 
aspired  to  make  his  monarch  the  center  of  all  power, 
spiritual  as  well  as  temporal.  Cromwell  did  not  follow 
the  beautiful  counsel  given  him  by  Wolsey,  which  the 
great  dramatist  puts  in  his  mouth.  On  the  contrary, 
his  cruel  policy  brought  to  the  scaffold  or  block  several 
noble  men. 

The  accomplished  Sir  Thomas  More  and  Fisher, 
bishop  of  Rochester,  were  executed  because  they  re- 
fused to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy.  The  Charter 
House  monks  of  the  Carthusian  order  were  brought  to 
trial  for  this  cause.     The  Prior  of  the  Charter  House 


328  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

was  executed,  and  many  others  connected  with  this 
establishment  suffered  imprisonment,  exile  and  other 
evils.  The  members  of  the  Charter  House  were  said 
to  be  monks  of  pure  morals  and  simple  faith.  Their 
fate  seemed  to  be  universally  mourned.* 

The  same  historian  from  whom  we  have  already 
quoted  says  that  Cromwell  had  a  long  and  bitter  debate 
to  meet  in  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries ;  although 
the  House  of  Commons  had  cried  "  Down  with  them  !  " 
when  overwhelming  proofs  of  the  general  corruption  of 
the  religious  houses  were  laid  before  them,  yet  there 
was  much  wrath  and  hate  seething  in  the  minds  of  a 
large  number  of  the  people.  Especially  did  they  hate 
the  measure  when  they  saw  that  the  money  derived  from 
the  spoliation  was  not  all  devoted  to  educational  pur- 
poses, but  a  large  portion,  it  is  alleged,  was  used  for 
enriching  the  king,  his  minister  Cromwell,  and  that 
minister's  satellites. 

"  Before  Cromwell's  m^  and  ^//^r  his  fall  from  power 
the  reign  of  Henry  VHI.  witnessed  no  more  than  the 
common  bloodshed  of  the  time."  Cranmer,  who  was 
now  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  never  soiled  his  hands 
with  any  portion  of  the  spoils  of  the  monasteries. 

Cromwell  seems,  from  his  great  talents,  energy  and 
decision,  to  be  a  favorite  with  historians.  But  he  set  a 
human  life  at  "  a  pin's  fee."  The  only  good  we  know 
of  him  was  his  faithful  service  to  Cardinal  Wolsey. 
But  he  did  not  "fling  away  ambition,"  but  he  hugged 
it  to  his  soul.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Machiavel,  and,  like 
that  great  politician,  his  only  aim  seemed  to  be  to  make 
his  state  or  country  the  most  powerful  nation  of  the 

*  Green. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       329 

earth,  whatever  costly  sacrifices  must  be  made  to  achieve 
it.  His  great  desire  to  connect  his  monarch  and  coun- 
try with  the  Protestant  powers  of  Germany  was  the 
cause  of  his  fall.  The  blow  of  the  headsman's  axe  was 
the  guerdon  of  his  splendid  services  he  at  last  received. 
He  had  caused  so  much  blood  to  flow  that  little  regret 
was  felt  at  his  death.  Cranmer  interceded  strongly  in 
his  behalf,  but  to  no  avail. 

In  the  year  1536,  Henry,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
convocation,  prescribed  that  the  Scriptures  and  the 
ancient  creeds  be  made  the  standards  of  faith ;  the 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  is  stated  ;  four  of  the 
sacraments  are  passed  over,  and  purgatory  is  left 
doubtful.  But  transubstantiation,  auricular  confession, 
the  worship  of  images  and  saints,  were  still  retained. 
In  the  year  1539,  however,  the  king  and  the  opposers 
of  the  Reformation  procured  a  statute  to  be  passed  in 
both  houses  of  parliament,  making  \\.  penal  to  speak  or 
write  against  any  of  the  six  following  articles,  namely  : 
I.  That  there  remained  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar 
after  consecration  no  substance  of  bread  and  wine,  but 
under  these  forms  the  natural  body  and  blood  were 
present.  2.  That  communion  in  both  kinds  was  not 
necessary.  3.  That  priests  might  not  marry  by  the  law 
of  God.  4.  That  vows  of  chastity  ought  to  be  ob- 
served. 5.  That  masses  should  be  continued,  the  use 
of  private  ma.sses.  6.  That  auricular  confession  was 
expedient  and  necessary,  and  ought  to  be  retained  in 
the  Church. 

This  six-article  law  was  called  the  bloody  statute, 
because  it  was  enforced  during  the  residue  of  Henry's 
reign,  and  brought  many  to  the  stake  or  to  prison.  It 
caused  the  Reformation  to  recede  during  the  last  eight 
years  of  Henry's  reign.      It  was  enforced  until  1547. 


330  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Cromwell  was  executed  in  1540.  His  fall  has  usu- 
ally been  attributed  to  his  connection  with  the  German 
marriage.  He,  like  Wolsey,  is  thought  to  have  for- 
feited his  high  position  on  account  of  a  woman.  Crom- 
well daily  became  more  identified  with  the  Protestants, 
and  this  must  have  disaffected  the  king,  as  we  have 
seen  from  the  "six-article  act"  that  he  became  more 
stringent  in  his  Romish  views  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
life.  Cromwell,  too,  had  failed  in  the  Anglo-German 
League.  Henry  was  left  alone  politically  at  the  very 
time  that  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  were  drawing 
together.    The  Lutherans  were  deluded  by  the  emperor. 

Have  we  maintained  the  position  with  which  we  set 
out  in  this  chapter,  that  Henry  VHL  was  not  the 
author  of  the  Reformation  of  the  Church  in  England  ? 
It  is  conceded  that,  through  the  Providence  of  God, 
opportunities  were  afforded  in  this  reign  for  an  increase 
of  knowledge.  Light  from  the  Lutheran  Reformation 
dawned  upon  England.  The  Bible  and  other  books 
were  translated.  It  matters  not  whether  England's 
king  broke  the  fetters  that  bound  him  to  the  papacy, 
through  passion  or  through  righteous  conviction  —  he 
could  break  down  a  barrier,  but  he  could  not  create  or 
build  up. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  33 1 


CHAPTER   XXXV. 

Much  sarcasm  has  been  leveled  at  the  assumption 
of  Henry's^  title,  "Head  of  the  Church."*  On  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth,  it  was  deemed  prudent  to  re- 
tire from  the  designation.!  When  the  Act  of  Suprem- 
acy was  passed,  in  order  to  guard  against  misconcep- 
tion, an  explanatory  document  was  drawn  up.  "The 
king's  grace,"  says  this  paper,  "has  no  new  authority 
given  hereby  in  being  recognized  as  supreme  head  of 
the  Church  of  England^  for  in  that  recognition  is  in- 
cluded only  that  he  have  such  power  as  to  a  king  ap- 
pertaineth  by  the  law  of  God,  and  not  that  he  should 
take  any  spiritual  power  from  ministers  that  is  given 
them  by  the  gospel.  So  that  the  words  "Head  of 
the  Church"  serve  rather  to  declare  to  the  world  that 
the  king  hath  power  to  suppress  all  powers,  as  well  of 
the  bishop  of  Rome  as  any  other  within  this  realm, 
whereby  his  subjects  might  be  grieved,  and  to  correct 
and  remove  any  disquiet  among  the  people,  rather  than 
he  should  pretend  thereby  to  take  away  from  the  suc- 
cessors of  the  apostles  that  which  was  given  to  them 
by  God." 

In  the  session  of  this  former  Parliament  in  the 
twenty-fifth  year  of  this  reign,  when  the  exactions  done 
to  the  king's  subjects  by  a  power  yr^w  without  were  put 
away,  then  the  promise  was  made  that  nothing  should 


*  Mr.  Froude.     t  While  retaining  the  authority. 


332       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

be  interpreted  upon  that  statute  that  the  king's  grace, 
his  nobles  or  subjects  intended  to  vary  from  the  con- 
gregation of  Christ's  Church,  in  anything  in  the  articles 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  or  anything  declared  by  the 
word  of  God  necessary  for  salvation. 

"It  is  not  meet  lightly  to  think  that  the  selfsame 
persons,  continuing  the  selfsame  Parliment,  would,  in 
the  next  year  following,  make  an  act  whereby  his  ma- 
jesty, his  nobles  and  his  subjects  should  so  vary.  And 
no  man  may  with  eonsezence  judge  that  they  did  so." 

There  is  no  authority  of  Scripture  that  will  prove 
that  any  oneo{  the  apostles  should  be  head  of  the  Univer- 
sal Church  of  Christendom. 

The  suppression  of  the  monasteries,  as  we  have  al- 
ready hinted,  produced  much  discontent  and  disorder. 
All  the  gold,  silver  an'd  other  property  pertaining  to 
these  religious  houses  had  been  confiscated.  The  ab- 
bots were  pensioned,  and  part  of  the  revenues  were 
expended  in  founding  schools  and  colleges,  and  six 
new  bishoprics  ;  but  a  very  large  portion  of  the  church 
property,  the  people  believed,  had  been  grasped  by 
the  courtiers  and  favorites  of  the  king. 

In  the  northern  counties  an  army  of  40,000  people 
undertook  what  they  called  a  "pilgrimage  of  grace." 
Many  towns  and  castles  fell  into  their  hands.  A  Par- 
liament of  the  north  met  at  Pomfret  and  demanded 
reunion  with  Rome,  the  restoration  of  Princess  Mary 
to  her  rights  as  heiress  to  the  crown  and  the  fall  of 
Cromwell.  To  that  great  statesman  (Comwell)  they 
attributed  all  the  evils  of  the  time.  This  rebellion  was 
put  down  with  the  most  summary  vengeance.  F'our  ab- 
bots were  hung, and  several  feudal  chiefs  were  executed. 
At  the  first  outbreak  the  king  yielded  to  several  of 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  333 

their  demands,  and  a  compromise  was  made,  but  a  sec- 
ond insurrection  was  put  down,  as  we  have  said,  with 
terrible  violence.  Much  odium  rested  on  the  head  of 
Cromwell  on  account  of  these  executions,  and  it  doubt- 
less contributed  to  his  overthrow,  though  this  "pil- 
grimage of  grace  "  occurred  in  1536  and  his  execution 
in  1540. 

Towards  the  close  of  Henry's  reign  the  conserva- 
tives gained  the  ascendancy.  The  Protestants  were 
persecuted.  Anne  Askew  was  racked  and  burned  be- 
cause she  refused  to  believe  in  the  real  presence.  Lat- 
imer was  arrested,  and  an  attempt  was  made  against 
the  life  of  Katharine  Parr,  the  Protestant  wife  of  the 
king.  She  saved  her  life  by  a  little  well-timed  flattery 
of  the  king,  who  was  fond  of  conversing  with  his  wife 
on  the  controverted  points  of  religion.  Her  enemies 
narrovvly  escaped  the  fate  they  had  prepared  for  her. 
Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester,  was  her  enemy. 
Henry,  it  is  said,  in  his  last  speech  to  Parliament,  i545» 
spoke  as  favorably  of  toleration  as  a  statesman  of  that 
age  could  be  expected  to  do. 

Several  distinguished  nobles  suffered  upon  the  scaf- 
fold during  this  reign,  but  to  the  masses  of  the  people 
it  was  not  so  tyrannical  as  many  previous  reigns. 
More  than  once  Henry  was  compelled  to  yield  to  the 
popular  w^ill.  A  very  distinguished  man  of  this  reign 
was  Reginald  Pole.  He  was  a  cousin  to  Henry,  and 
wrote  a  book  filled  with  arguments,  which  he  sent  to 
the  king,  protesting  against  the  divorce  and  his  separa- 
tion from  Rome. 

Paul  ni.,  the  successor  of  Clement  VH.,  made 
Pole  a  cardinal,  but  he  lived  away  from  England, 
which  was  the  home  of  his  childhood  and  youth,  until 


334       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

the  reign  of  Mary  Tudor.  Philip  Melanchthon  wrote  a 
noble  protest  to  the  king  against  the  "Bloody  Stat- 
ute." He  insists  that  Henry  should  repeal  the  barbar- 
ous decree,  but  the  appeal  was  unavailing.  The  Prot- 
estants of  Germany  had  been  greatly  grieved  by  what 
IS  called  "the  Peasants'  War." 

There  arose  in  the  year  1525  a  multitude  of  sedi- 
tious, delirious  fanatics,  who  declared  war  against  the 
laws  and  magistrates,  and  spread  rapine  and  slaughter 
through  the  land.  Thomas  Munzer,  a  fanatical  Ana- 
baptist, was  one  of  the  chief  incendiaries  and  leaders 
in  this  peasants'  war.  The  storm  subsided  after  the 
battle  of  Mulhausen,  a.  d.  1525,  in  which  Munzer  was 
taken  and  suffered  capital  punishment.  The  enemies 
of  the  Lutherans  pretended  to  ascribe  this  sedition  to 
the  spread  of  the  new  doctrines. 

The  great  Luther  died  in  1546.  He  had  witnessed 
the  extension  of  the  religious  doctrines  he  had  so 
labored  to  propagate,  not  only  throughout  Germany, 
but  also  in  Denmark,  and  Sweden.  In  these  two  last 
mentioned  counties  the  Episcopate  was  retained;  the 
bishops  t  were  reformed  with  the  people,  as  was  the 
case  in  England. 

To  return  to  Luther.  He  had  married,  much  to 
the  surprise  of  his  friends,  in  1526,  Catharine  von 
Bora.  The  marriage  was  a  happy  one.  He  had  three 
sons.  -From  1521  to  1530  Luther's  pious  labors  were 
devoted  to  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  hymns  and 
choral  services  in  the  vernacular  tongue.  Luther  wrote 
some  famous  hymns.  Luther  has  been  called  the 
Elijah  of  the  reformation.    In  unrolling  the  scroll  of  his- 


*  Melanchthon  in  1560.     t  At  least  some  of  them. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  335 

tory  we  see  impressed  upon  it  great  peculiar  characters, 
who  seem  to  have  been  created  for  trying  emergencies. 
Luther  was  one  of  these.  He  had  to  bear  the  burden 
of  ages  of  superstition  and  ignorance,  and  to  open  and 
clear  the  way,  that  the  world  might  see  the  light  of 
truth.  He  possessed  the  boldness,  the  energy  and  the 
endurance  to  accomplish  a  grand,  moral  work,  even 
the  work  of  regenerating  Christendom.  He  was  the 
forerunner,  the  voice  (not  the  echo)  crying  in  the  wil- 
derness of  sin  and  death,  "Make  straight  in  the  des- 
ert a  highway  for  our  God."  Under  different  circum- 
stances, and  different  conditions  many  men  after  Luther 
nobly  helped  to  accomplish  the  grand  result  of  a  glori- 
ous reformation,  in  giving  Christian  liberty  to  man, 
and  in  enabling  him  to  burst  the  shackles  of  supersti- 
tion. 

Cranmer,  the  great  reformer  during  the  reigns  of 
Henry  VHL  and  Edward  VL,  had  a  most  difficult 
part  to  act.  His  path  was  beset  with  thorns  during 
the  reign  of  Henry.  His  province  was  to  calm  the 
irascible  temper  of  the  monarch  and  to  sue  for  privi- 
leges to  the  church  that  would  elevate  and  instruct  the 
people.  He  has  been  called  timeserving  and  com- 
pliant, but  it  is  very  certain  from  the  fruits  of  his  labor 
that  he  served  the  time  manfully  and  well. 

The  year  1552  must  be  remembered  as  the  year  in 
which  Cranmer  and  other  divines  prepared  for  the 
church  in  Great  Britain  the  priceless  gift  of  the  English 
liturgy.  The  Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Ten 
Commandments  had  already  been  given  to  the  people 
in  English.  A  prayer  book,  known  as  the  First  Book 
of  Edward,  had  been  published  in  1549;  but  much  re- 
mained   in    this    book    in    the    service    of  popery.      It 


336  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

pleased  neither  party.  A  commission  of  six  bishops, 
with  Cranmer  as  primate,  was  appointed  to  prepare  a 
new  book,  the  Second  Book  of  Edward  VI.,  1552.* 
They  used  the  treasures  of  the  past,  that  had  been 
bequeathed  to  them,  ancient  Hturgies,  collects  and  offi- 
ces which  had  happily  survived.  The  present  was  thus 
connected  with  the  past  by  golden  links  of  prayer  and 
praise,  reaching  down  through  the  ages.  The  Songs 
of  Zion,  the  Psalms  of  Moses  and  David,  the  noble 
Ode  of  Zachariah,  the  Magnificat  of  Mary,  the  Gloria 
in  Excelsis  of  the  Angels,  and,  more  than  all,  the 
prayer  given  to  us  by  our  Lord,  were  as  precious 
jewels  set  in  this  book,  together  with  the  holy  and  wise 
collects  of  the  fathers  of  the  early  church  and  the  Te 
Deum  of  Hilary.  For  this  crowning  service  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  prayer-book,  England  is  indebted  to 
Cranmer  and  his  associates,  next  in  importance  to  the 
gift  of  the  English  Bible.  The  people  could  now  in- 
telligently unite  in  the  public  worship  of  God.  The 
prayers  were  repeated  aloud.  This  drew  multitudes  to 
hear  the  prayers  in  their  own  native  tongue. 

The  absolution  was  turned  into  a  prayer!  The 
YivayQYS  for  the  dead  vj&VQ  removed;  also,  the  invocation 
of  the  saints.      Much  credit  is  due  to  Cranmer,  that  he 

■••■'The  prayer-book  is  the  genuine  flower  and  fruit  of  the  Church 
of  England,  put  forth  by  her  own  iniuard  life,  indorsed  and  sanctioned 
by  her  clergy  in  convocation  and  her  laity  in  Parliament  assembled. 
The  authority  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  was  from  the  first  as  exercised 
in  Englaad,  an  invasion  of  the  rights  of  the  British  Church.  This 
usurpation,  against  which  the  English  nation  vainly  struggled  for  cen- 
turies, became  intolerable  as  its  pretenses  and  abuses  grew.  The  re- 
vival of  learning  and  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  unveiled  to  the 
people  more  clearly  the  enormities  of  the  i)apacy.  At  length  the 
church  and  nation  threw  off  forever  the  usurper. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       337 

gave  so  much  beauty  and  simplicity  of  expression  to 
his  native  tongue.*  As  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
bears  the  impress  of  Tyndale,  so  is  the  image  of  Cran- 
mer  reflected  on  the  calm  surface  of  the  liturgy.  Many 
beautiful  portions  are  translations  of  the  Breviary. 
Cranmer's  translations  of  these  prayers  chime  like 
church  bells  in  the  ears  of  the  English-speaking  na- 
tion. 

'  The  English  liturgy  was  the  one  admirable  thing 
produced  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  The  accession 
of  Edward  was  in  1547.  His  father  had  appointed  a 
council  of  regency  under  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  the 
brother  of  Edward's  mother,  Jane  Seymour.  Somer- 
set surrounded  Edward  with  Protestant  teachers. 

Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  a  strong  opponent 
of  the  reformation,  and  himself  a  fierce  persecutor, 
was  thrown  into  prison  by  Somerset.  Somerset  after- 
wards sought  to  release  Gardiner,  but  he  was  overcome 
in  his  conscientious  scruples  by  Warwick,  his  wicked 
brother,  and  some  ultra-Protestants. 

Ridley  was  not  so  loving  in  his  spirit,  to  those  who 
differed  from  him,  as  we  would  hope  to  see  in  one  so 
good  and  true.  He  was  destined  to  become  in  the 
reign  of  Mary  one  of  "the  army  of  martyrs."  Rid- 
ley   once    said  to    Gardiner,     when    referring    to    his 


*  Froude. 

t  To  class  the  Church  of  England,  says  a  late  writer  on  "The  Con- 
tinuity of  the  Church,"  among  the  many  sects  produced  by  the  refor- 
mation is  to  act  in  defiance  of  history  and  common  sense.  Not  one 
link  in  the  chain  of  her  apostolic  order  was  severed.  Sfie  had  been, 
and  continued  to  be,  the  apostolically  founded  and  divinely  commis- 
sioned witness  and  keeper  of  Holy  Writ  "  to  preserve  in  England  and 
hand  on  to  future  ages — to  all  who  would  seek  authority  and  instruc- 
tion " — the  faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints. 


338       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

persecution:  "The  hand  of  God  is  upon  me,  because 
I  have  troubled  other  men."  The  spell  of  the  past 
long  held  some  men  stern  but  true  in  the  idea  that  cer- 
tain opinons  deemed  false  should  be  punished 

Calvin  and  Bullinger  were  not  free  from  this  mis- 
chievous error,  as  well  as  Bonner  and  Gardiner.  A 
thoughtful  writer  says  that  the  Roman  Catholic  ivas  in- 
tolerant upon  principle ;  persecution  was  the  corollary 
of  his  creed.  The  Protestant  was  a  persecutor  in  spite 
of  his  creed,  led  by  vindictive  temper.  The  Protest- 
ant brings  his  Bible  to  the  door  of  every  Christian 
family.  He  recognizes  the  ability  of  the  Church  in  de- 
fining Scripture,  but  denies  the  infallibility  of  human 
testimony.  We  can  not  find  gold  unalloyed  in  the 
work  of  the  reformation.  In  all  revolutions  there  will 
be  some  base  metal  mixed  with  the  pure  ore. 

While  the  unscrupulous  Dudley  was  forming  a  con- 
spiracy against  his  brother  Somerset,  while  he  and 
others  of  the  laity  were  devising  wicked  plots.  Lever, 
Latimer,  Ridley  and  Cranmer  held  on  unflinchingly  to 
their  honest  convictions.  With  aching  hearts  and  per- 
plexed intellects  they  witnessed  the  prevailing  corrup- 
tion and  cruelty.  Cranmer  kept  aloof  now  from  State 
matters,  and  was  devoutly  engaged  in  arranging  the 
prayer-book.  No  fibre  of  political  intrigue  or  conspir- 
acy could  be*  traced  to  the  palace  at  Lambeth.  No 
plunder  of  church  or  crown   had    touched  his  hands. 

It  is  to  be  regretted,*  says  a  late  historian,  that 
Cranmer  deposed  Bonner  and  Gardiner,  There  was 
about  was  time  a  vestment  controversy.  Hooker,  Bishop 
of  Gloucester,  had  some  doubts  as  to  the  propriety  of 

*  Froude. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  339 

the  square  cap,  etc.  He  consulted  Martyr  and  Bucer 
on  this  subject.  They  gave  him  wise  answers.  His 
scruples  were  finally  overcome. 

In  these  pages  of  our  history  we  have  sought  to 
prove  that  the  Church  of  England  did  not  take  its 
shape  and  form  through  the  counsel  of  Henry  VHI. 
On  the  contrary,  that  Henry  maintained  and  promul- 
gated the  six-article  law  which  embodied  the  cardinal 
doctrines  of  the  Romish  Church.  It  is  conceded  that 
through  the  prudent  and  pious  intervention  of  learned 
men  during  this  reign,  important  principles  were 
gained  by  the  friends  of  reform. 

Henry  was  a  sagacious  prince,  and  in  this  era  of  re- 
viving literature  he  was  persuaded  by  Erasmus  (who 
made  the  translation)  and  by  Cranmer  and  others  to 
consent  to  the  translation  of  the  Greek  Testament  into 
the  English  tongue  ;  also  the  Ten  Commandments  and 
Lord's  Prayer.  Henry's  Protestantism  extended  no 
further  than  a  protest  against  the  infallibility  of  the 
Pope,  with  regard  to  his  divorce  and  a  determination 
that  he  should  not  interfere  with  the  affairs  of  his  king- 
dom. 

The  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  of  which  we 
have  already  spoken,*  was  doubtless  an  entering  wedge 
to  the  battering  down  of  many  of  the  corrupt  incrus- 
tations which  had  gathered  upon  the  Church  during  the 
ignorance  and  violent  misrule  of  the  middle  ages,  A 
cry  for  reform  from  within  the  Church  had  been  heard 
from  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  from  the  days  of 
Wycliffe,  and  afterwards  from  the  holy  Savonarola,  but 

*  Chapters  XXXI  V-XXXV. 


340  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

the  cry  was   stifled  and  discouraged  and  overcome  by 
obstacles  that  seemed  insurmountable. 

But  now  the  time  was  come.  Leaders  of  thought 
in  Germany,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  France  were  earn- 
est and  active  in  the  cause  of  reform.  In  the  last 
years  of  Henry's  life  reform  had  retrograded  in  Eng- 
land because  of  the  terrors  of  the  "six  articles." 

Irf  1547,  Edward  VI.  ascended  ihe  throne.  The 
parliament  in  1547  repealed  the  laws  which  sanctioned 
persecution,  but  previous  to  this  time  Bonner  and  Gar- 
diner, refusing  to  obey  the  injunctions  of  the  court  of 
Edward,  had  been  sent  to  prison.  Injunctions  were 
issued  to  regulate  worship  and  religious  order.  They 
who  prepared  and  revised  the  English  prayer-book 
were  engaged  in  selecting  the  treasures  of  the  past. 
They  retained  all  that  was  in  unison  with  the  word  of 
God.  They  did  not,  says  Bishop  Hall,  take  the 
prayer-book  out  of  the  mass,  but  they  thrust  the  mass 
out  of  the  prayer-book.  They  did  not  adopt  much 
that  was  new.  They  were  reformers,  not  revolution- 
ists. 

In  155 1  foiiy-two  articles  of  faith  were  adopted. 
In  1552  the  prayer-book  was  organized  and  made 
nearly  as  it  is  now  in  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States.  By  the  act  of 
supremacy  the  right  of  reforming  the  Church  was  in 
the  crown  ;  but,  says  Mr.  Gladstone,  when  the  convo- 
cation acknowledged  the  headship  of  the  crown  in  1531, 
Archbishop  Warham  was  primate.  Not  one  of  the 
bishops  or  prelates  who  determined  the  royal  suprem- 
acy had  aught  to  do  with  the  reformation.  Cranmer 
was  not  a  bishop  when  this  act  of  supremacy  was 
passed.       The    leading    reformers   of    Edward's   reign 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  341 

(sixteen  years  after  the  act  of  supremacy  was  passed), 
were  young  Edward  himself,  the  Duke  of  Somerset, 
the  king's  uncle,  the  lord  protector,  the  Archbishops 
Cranmer  and  Holgate,  Paget,  secretary  of  state,  Lisle 
high  admiral,  the  Bishops  Holbeach,  Goodrich,  Lati- 
mer, and  Ridley. 

Peter  Martyr,  of  Florence,  was  appointed  divinity 
professor  at  Oxford,  and  Martin  Bucer  was  professor 
at  Cambridge.  Both  these  men  were  liberal  enlight- 
ened reformers.  The  king,  though  a  child  in  years, 
was  remarkably  mature  in  intelligence  and  virtue. 
The  dependents  of  Dudley,  earl  of  Northumber- 
land, appropriated  to  themselves  all  the  public  prop- 
erty they  could  lay  their  hands  upon.  The  young 
prince,  on  the  contrary,  stimulated  the  lord  mayor 
and  aldermen   to    establish  hospitals  and  schools. 

Parliament  had  ratified  the  first  book  of  Edward 
published  in  1549,  and  aftewards  the  revised  book  of 
Edward,  published  in  1552.  As  a  proof  of  the  intol- 
erance of  the  times  parliament  made  it  a  penal  offense 
to  use  any  other  liturgy.  Some  tumults  were  excited 
by  this  measure,  but  thej'  were  soon  quieted.  Ed- 
ward VL  seemed  to  have  just  notions  of  government, 
and  was  truly  a  religious  prince. 

Many  learned  men  had  gathered  around  from  every 
quarter  holding  Protestant  opinions.  The  leading  op- 
ponents to  reform  were  the  Princess  Mary,  Wrothes- 
ley,  the  Bishops  Tonstal,  Gardiner,  and  Bonner.  The 
first  book  of  Homilies  was  appointed  to  be  read  in 
the  church  when  the  incumbents  were  not  well  quali- 
fied to  preach. 


342  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

ACCESSION    OF    MARY    TUDOR. 

Edward  died  in  1553.  As  soon  as  Mary,  the 
daughter  of  Katherine  of  Arragon,  was  estabhshed 
upon  the  throne,  she  proceeded  to  release  from  prison 
Bonner,  Gardiner,  Tonstal,  and  to  restore  them  to  their 
sees.  The  reforming  bishopg,  Cranmer,  Hopper,  Lati- 
mer and  Ridley,  Coverdale,  Rogers,  Holgate,  were 
incarcerated.  Eight  hundred  friends  of  the  Reforma- 
tion fled  from  their  country  and  settled  upon  the  Rhine. 
Among  these  were  bishops,  deans,  archdeacons,  doc- 
tors of  divinity,  together  with  noblemen,  merchants, 
etc.  A  compliant  parliament  repealed  the  laws  that 
Edward  had  made,  and  restored  things  to  the  state  in 
which  Henry  had  left  them.  The  Protestant  professors, 
Martyr  and  Bucer,  were  expelled. 

Mary  had  had  a  brief  struggle  for  the  throne  in  a 
contest  with  the  partisans  of  the  Dudleys  and  Greys, 
who  had  urged  Lady  Jane  Grey,  against  her  will  and 
judgment;  to  pretend  to  the  throne,  which  was  the 
rightful  inheritance  of  Mary  Tudor. 

Lady  Jane  was  a  Protestant,  distinguished  for  her 
learning  and  accomplishments,  and  for  a  lovely,  relig- 
ious character,  as  all  historians  testify.  Unfortunately, 
she  became  the  tool  of  the  unprincipled  Dudley,  her 
father-in-law,  who,  to  serve  his  own  selfish  ends,  wished 
to  make  her  Queen.  She  was  the  granddaughter  of 
Mary,  the  youngest  sister  of  Henry  VHL     Her  father 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  343 

also   was    descended    from    Margaret,    Henry's    eldest 
sister. 

But  the  people  of  England  had  too  strorig  a  sense 
of  justice,  despite  her  Catholicism,  to  ignore  the 
claims  of  Mary  to  the  throne  of  England. 

It  is  said  that  Edward  VI.  heartily  desired  that  his 
cousin.  Lady  Jane,  should  succeed  him,  on  account  of 
her  Protestant  opinions,  and  her  excellence  of  character. 
Edward  had  been  educated  with  his  cousin,  and  fully 
understood  the  purity  of  her  religious  principles ;  in 
his  languishing  state  of  health,  Dudley,  now  Earl  of 
Northumberland,  persuaded  the  young  king  to  exe- 
cute a  deed,  whereby  Lady  Jane  Grey,  to  the  exclusion 
of  his  sister's  superior  legal  rights,  was  made  heir  to 
England,  and  Queen  of  England.  After  wearing  a 
crown  for  ten  days,  the  noble  princess  resigned  the 
vain  pageantry  and  returned  to  domestic  life. 

Mary  immediately  ascended  the  throne.  She  at 
first  concealed  her  violent  bigotry,  and  assured  the 
people  that  she  would  not  alter  the  laws  of  Edward 
VI.  An  entire  change,  however,  quickly  followed  her 
accession,  both  in  men  and  measures.  All  the  popish 
rites  were  everywhere  restored.  The  imprisoned  bish- 
ops were  released.  A  compliant  parliament  in  October,^ 
1553,  repealed  the  reforming  laws  of  King  Edward. 
The  married  and  recusant  clergy,  some  thousands  in 
number,  were  deprived  of  their  parishes  and  sees. 

Much  displeasure  was  now  manifested  at  the  violent 
measures  of  the  Queen,  and  especially  her  proposed 
marriage  with  Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain.  An  entensive 
conspiracy  was  formed  by  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  Sir  Peter 
Carew  and  the  Duke  of  Suffolk.  The  strong  motive 
with  the  latter  was  the  hope  of  recovering  the  crown 


344       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

for  Lady  Jane  Grey.  This  rebellion  ended  in  disaster 
and  defeat.  Lady  Jane  Grey,  who  had  been  spared 
when  her  father-in-law  expiated  his  guilt  on  the  scaffold, 
on  account  of  her  youth  and  innocence,  was  now 
attainted  for  treason,  together  with  her  youthful  hus- 
band, Guilford  Dudley,  and  suffered  the  extreme  pen- 
alty of  the  law.  It  is  said  that  the  council,  dreading 
the  compassion  of  the  people  for  one  so  loved,  ordered 
that  she  should  be  beheaded  privately,  within  the  verge 
of  the  Tower,  while  her  husband  was  executed  on 
Tower  Hill.* 

The  fires  of  Smithfield  burned  fiercely  during  Mary's 
short  reign  oi  Jive  years.  Rogers,  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's,  a  man  distinguished  for  piety  and  learning,  was 
the  first  martyr.  Hooper,  Bishop  of  Gloucester,  was 
condemned  at  the  same  time  with  Rogers ;  he  was  sent 
to  his  own  diocese  to  be  punished,  in  order  to  strike 
more  terror  into  his  flock.  But  his  constancy  had  the 
opposite  effect.  He  bore  testimony  to  the  truths  he 
had  proclaimed  among  them,  until  the  violence  of  his 
sufferings  denied  him  utterance.  Ferrar,  bishop  of  St. 
David's,  also  suffered  martyrdom  in  his  own  diocese. 
Ridley,  Bishop  of  London,  and  Latimer,  of  Worcester, 
perished  together  in  the  same  fire  at  Oxford.  Latimer 
called  to  his  companion  when  tied  to  the  stake,  "  Be  of 
good  cheer,  my  brother !  We  shall  this  day  kindle  such 
a  flame  in  England  as  I  trust,  in   God,  will   never  be 

*  "The  husband  was  first  executed.  When  she  heard  of  the  mag- 
nanimity and  calmness  that  her  husband  evinced  on  the  scaffold,  she 
was  encoiyaged  to  write  upon  her  tablets  three  sentences  —  one  in 
Greek,  one  in  Latin  and  one  in  English ;  purporting  thai,  though 
human  justice  was  against  her  husband's  body,  divine  mercy  would  be 
favorable  to  his  soul." — Russel's  Modern  Europe. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  345 

extinguished."  Sanders  was  committed  to  the  flames 
at  Coventry  ;  he  rejected  with  scorn  a  pardon  offered 
him  if  he  would  recant,  crying  out,  "  Welcome  cross  of 
Christ !    Welcome  everlasting  life  !  " 

But  the  man  who  had  been  most  active  in  Edward's 
reign,  he  who  had  given  shape  and  form  and  consis- 
tency to  the  work  of  reformation,  now  faltered  for  a 
time  when  he  was  called  upon  to  die.  We  mean  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer ! 

He  was  now  an  old  man ;  his  body  was  enfeebled  by 
a  long  imprisonment ;  in  a  moment  of  infirmity  he 
signed  a  recantation.  When  it  was  known  that  he  had 
signed  this  paper,  he  was  required  by  Mary  and  her 
council  to  come  to  the  church,  that  he  might  acknowl- 
edge publicly  his  errors.  He  came  to  the  church, 
weary  and  weak  with  suffering,  but  he  surprised  his 
audience  with  a  very  different  declaration  from  that 
which  the  Queen  expected.  After  explaining  his  sense 
of  what  he  owed  to  God  and  his  sovereign,  he  said, 
"There  is  one  miscarriage  in  my  life,  which  above  all 
others,  I  heartily  repent  —  I  mean,  the  insincere  declar- 
ation of  faith  to  which  I  had  the  weakness  to  subscribe. 
I  take  this  opportunity  of  atoning  for  my  sin  by  a 
public  declaration.  I  am  willing  to  seal  with  my  bloqd 
those  doctrines,  which,  in  an  hour  of  infirmity  I  denied 
—  doctrines  which  I  firmly  believe  to  have  been  com- 
municated from  heaven." 

But  little  time  was  lost  before  he  was  led  to  the 
stake.  When  the  fire  burned  around  him,  he  thrust 
his  right  hand  into  the  fierce  flame,  exclaiming,  "  This 
hand  has  offended."  He  seemed  to  find  some  relief 
when  he  had  sacrificed  this  instrument  of  his  crime  to 
divine  justice. 


346  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

The  whole  number  put  to  death  in  this  reign  was 
about  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight.  Some  died  in 
prison  and  many,  as  we  have  said,  fled  the  country. 
Cardinal  Pole,  after  a  long  absence,  was  recalled  to 
England.  He,  it  is  believed,  tried  to  restrain  the  court  of 
Mary  in  their  ferocious  proceedings.  Bonner  has  been 
charged  with  the  chief  agency  in  these  cruel  proceed- 
ings.     Queen  Mary  died  in  1558. 

Elizabeth  was  immediately  proclaimed.  She  deter- 
mined to  restore  the  reformed  religion.  She  first 
inhibited  preaching  until  church  affairs  were  more 
settled.  The  exiles  hastened  back  to  their  homes  in 
England.  They  were  somewhat  divided  in  their  views 
as  to  discipline,  rites  and  ceremonies.  The  court  se- 
cured a  parliament  in  1559,  which  repealed  the  persecu- 
ting laws  of  Mary  Tudor,  and  invested  the  sovereign 
with  power  to  regulate  the  discipline  and  forms  of  wor- 
ship. She  consulted  the  clergy  as  to  these  measures. 
The  Queen  appointed  Parker,  Grindal,  Cox  and  others 
to  revise  the  liturgy  of  King  Edward,  which  had  been 
so  carefully  revised  and  compiled  by  Cranmer 
Very  slight  alterations  were  made ;  it  was  ratified 
by  parliament  and  established  by  law. 

Much  prudence  had  been  exercised  by  Elizabeth 
during  the  reign  of  her  sister.  When  pressed  as  to  her 
belief  in  the  real  presence,  she  replied  : 

"  Christ  was  the  Word,  that  spake  it. 
He  took  the  bread,  and  brake  it ; 
And  what  that  Word  did  make  it. 
Thus  I  believe,  and  take  it." 

About  forms  of  prayer,  there  has  been  and  ever 
will  be,  much  thought  and  discussion  in  the  religious 
world.      When   the  disciples  of  our  Lord  asked  from 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  347 

Him  instruction  in  prayer,  He  gave  them  a  form  of 
prayer ;  a  form  forever  hallowed  in  the  hearts  of  His 
people.  The  wants  of  individual  human  hearts  are  the 
same  in  every  age  and  country,  when  looking  to  the 
Father  of  our  spirits,  the  source  of  all  hope  and  help. 
In  the  worship  of  the  congregation,  however,  not  only 
similarity,  but  some  degree  of  uniformity,  seems  to  be 
necessary.  Accordingly,  we  find  from  very  early  times, 
the  existence  of  liturgies. 

The  Jews  used  precomposed  forms  of  prayer.  The 
Greek,  in  the  chorus  of  the  tragedy  and  in  singing 
poeans  to  their  gods,  united  in  lofty  religious  harmonies. 
The  Psalms  were  introduced  early  into  the  public 
Christian  service.  "  The  Church,"  says  Dean  Milman, 
"  succeeded  to  an  inheritance  of  religious  lyrics  as  unriv- 
alled in  the  history  of  poetry  as  of  religion."  The 
Psalms,  and  perhaps  the  Psalmody  that  had  filled  the 
spacious  courts  of  the  temple,  may  have  been  adopted 
by  the  Christians.  The  earliest  recorded  hymns  are 
fragments  from  the  Scripture  —  those  hymns  that  are 
now  constantly  sung  in  our  Episcopal  churches,  viz., 
the  Doxology,  the  angelic  hymn,  Glory  be  to  God  on 
High  ;  the  Cherubic  Hymn,  and  the  Hymn  of  Victory, 
are  both  taken  from  Revelation.  The  Magnificat,  and 
the  Nunc  Dimittis,  are  still  sung  in  the  Church  of 
England. 

In  the  early  Christian  churches  each  nation  had  its 
liturgy.  In  these  there  was  much  similarity,  but  not 
entire  uniformity.  When  Gregory  I.  writes  to  Austin, 
in  the  sixth  century,  on  the  discipline  of  the  British 
Church  (which  had  come  into  contact  with  the  church 
of  his  Saxon  converts),  he  tells  him  not  to  interfere 
with  the  worship  of  the  Britons,  but  to  allow  them  to 


348       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

use  their  own  liturgy,  which  had  been  received  from 
another  source. 

The  Hturgy  used  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem  can  be 
traced  back  to  the  second  century.  The  liturgies  of 
Basil  and  Chrysostom  are  revisions  of  the  early  church 
at  Jerusalem.  These  form  the  basis  of  the  liturgies  of 
the  Greek  Church  in  Russia  and  Greece,  and  Armenia. 
The  liturgy  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria  forms  the  princi- 
pal part  of  the  worship  of  the  Copts  in  Egypt  and 
Abyssinia.  The  Ambrosian  liturgy,  ascribed  to  Bar- 
nabas, is  still  used  in  the  churches  of  Milan.  The 
liturgy  used  in  Spain  is  very  ancient.  The  Galilean 
church  had  a  liturgy  of  its  own  until  the  rise  of  the 
Carlovingians.  The  Roman  liturgy  gradually  sup- 
planted the  Galilean  liturgy,  which  has  been  ascribed 
to  Hilary  of  Poictiers. 

The  Roman  liturgies  are  traced  to  the  time  of  Leo 
I.,  440.  To  Hilary  of  Poictiers  has  been  ascribed  the 
grand  anthem  of  the  Te  Deum  ;  but  it  has  usually  been 
styled  the  Hymn  of  Ambrose,  as  tradition  says  he  sang 
it  in  the  church  at  Milan,  at  the  baptism  of  St.  August- 
ine, in  the  fourth  century. 

Many  liturgies  were  written  in  the  sixteenth  century 
during  the  reforming  movement ;  but  the  most  cele- 
brated"* of  these  was  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of 
England,  which  was  carefully  revised  from  the 
treasures  of  the  past.  Of  this  we  have  fully  spoken. 
•Calvin,  Luther  and  Zuingliu  published  liturgies,  but 
no  uniformity  was  arrived  at  among  them.  The  Swiss 
and  Germans  retained  their  liturgies  until  theclose  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  when  a  new  theology  (rational- 
ism), produced  a  radical  change  in  the  spirit  and  form 
of  Divine  worship  in  those  countries.      At  the  present 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH.  OF  CHRIST.       349 

day,  however,  these  churches  have  returned  to  their 
liturgies  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  now  seem  to 
value  liturgical  worship. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  in 
1559,  and  of  the  clergy  she  appointed  to  revise  the 
liturgy  adopted  during  Edward's  reign.  It  was  slightly 
altered,  but  all  that  savored  of  idolatrj'-,  all  the  notions 
about  purgatory,  were  rigorously  excluded ;  the  pre- 
cious services  of  the  early  church  were  retained,  and 
the  bishops,  pri  sts  and  deacons  continued  in  an  unin- 
terrupted line,  as  from  the  beginning.  When  the 
bishops  of  Mary's  reign  were  called  upon  to  take  the 
oath  of  supremacy,  all  refused  except  one.  New  bish- 
ops were  consecrated  by  the  ex-bishops  of  Edward's  '' 
reign.  The  Queen  now  ordered  a  visitation  of  all  the 
churches  in  her  realm  and  issued  injunctions  regulating 
worship  and  discipline,  and  the  duties  of  clergymen  ; 
also  holy  days,  etc.,  with  penalties  against  the  recusant 
clergy.  Two  hundred  refused  obedience  ;  these  lost 
their  livings. 

The  convocation,  in  revising  the  Forty-two  Articles 
of  Religion,  as  they  are  called,  reduced  them  to  thirty- 
nine,  the  number  in  which  they  now  exist  in  the  Eng- 
lish and  American  prayer-books.  The  Puritan  argued 
at  this  convocation  for  a  still  more  simple  worship,  but 
the  book,  as  prepared  by  Cranmer,  has  remained  sub- 
stantially the  same  from  that  time  to  the  present  day. 


A  Note  on  Roman  Catacombs.  —  Inquiries  are  frequently  made 
in  late  years  about  the  Catacombs  of  Rome  :  What  are  they  ?  They 
are  galleries  dug  in  the  rock,  used  as  places  of  burial.  The  Christians, 
following  the  examples  of  the  Jews,  buried  their  dead  in  rock-hewn 
galleries.     In   times  of  persecution,  the  early  Christians   used  them  as 


350  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

places  of  worship.  They  wrote  on  the  graves  of  their  friends  consoling 
words,  and  painted  symbols  of  their  happiness  in  heaven.  From  the 
sixth  century  to  the  seventeenth,  nothing  was  known  of  the  Catacombs, 
as  they  were  deserted  at  the  invasion  of  the  barbarians,  and  filled  with 
ruins. 

"These  Catacombs,"  says  Dean  Stanley,  "are  a  standing  monument 
of  the  Oriental  and  Jewish  character  even  of  Western  Christianity." 

The  primitive  Christians  of  Rome  were  an  Eastern  community,  speak- 
ing Greek.  All  the  paintings  on  these  Catacombs  are  cheerful  and 
joyous.  There  is  neither  the  cross  of  the  fifth  century,  nor  the  crucifix 
of  the  twelfth.  There  is  the  Good  Shepherd,  the  Vine  with  its  branches, 
also  the  Lamb  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross.  There  are  many  symbols  of 
the  Resurrection. 

"  I  say  to  thee,  do  thou  repeat 
To  the  first  man  thou  mayest  meet 
Tn  lane,  highway  or  open  street. 
That  he  and  1  and  all  men  move 
Under  a  canopy  of  love 
As  broad  as  the  blue  sky  above." 

—  Trench. 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       35 1 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

JOHN     KNOX  REFORMATION     IN      SCOTLAND     AND     SWIT- 
ZERLAND. 

The  affairs  of  Scotland,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  were 
in  great  confusion  from  the  death  of  James  V.,  in  1542, 
to  the  accession  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  in  1561. 
As  early  as  1527,  Protestant  doctrines  had  made  their 
way  in  Scotland.  Perhaps  some  of  the  writings  of 
Luther,  that  Latimer,  Bilney,  and  Tyndale  ^had  circu- 
lated in  England,  had  reached  Scotland.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  in  1527  Patrick  Hamilton  was  arraigned  for 
heresy  and  burned  at  the  stake  at  St.  Andrews.  Ham- 
ilton had  visited  seminaries  of  learning  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  was  greatly  esteemed  for  his  accomplish- 
ments. Hamilton  was  abbot  of  Feme,  a  young  noble- 
man of  blameless  life.  He  suffered  martyrdom  in  the 
twenty-fourth  year  of  his  age.  From  this  time  Prot- 
estantism made  slow  but  sure  progress  in  Scotland. 

For  nineteen  years  Mary  Guise  held  arbitrary  sway 
over  the  kingdom.  She  was  the  widow  of  James  V. 
and  mother  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and  the  sister  of 
the  famous  Guises  of  France.  With  little  observation 
or  opposition  the  reformed  doctrines  were  quietly 
spreading  in  Scotland  until  the  martyrdom  of  George 
Wishart,  a  reformed  preacher,  by  Beatoun,  Archbishop 
of  St.  Andrews.  This  occurred  in  1545,  and  created 
the  wildest  excitement. 

Norman  Leslie,  a  young  nobleman,  assembled  an 


352  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

armed  force,  surprised  and  murdered  the  cardinal  in 
his  castle  of  St.  Andrews.  Leslie  and  his  adherents 
held  possession  of  St.  Andrews  for  fourteen  months. 
John  Knox  was  the  leading  spirit  at  this  time  among 
the  preachers,  and  boldly  preached  the  doctrines  of 
the  reformation.  The  Regent,  Mary  Guise,  assisted  by 
a  French  squadron,  forced  the  garrison  of  St.  Andrews 
to  submit.  Knox  was  among  the  prisoners.  He  was 
sent  out  of  the  country  to  France.  He  was  on  the 
galleys  nineteen  months.  John  Knox  had  been  edu- 
cated in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He  was  a 
teacher  of  philosophy  and  theology  at  St.  Andrews  in 
1530,  devoting  himself  in  his  hours  of  study  to  the 
works  of  Augustine  and  Jerome,  and  doubtless  con- 
trasted the  doctrines  of  these  ancient  fathers  of  the 
church  with  the  traditional  teachings  of  the  court  of 
Rome  in  the  sixteenth  century.  After  his  release  from 
the  French  galleys  he  became  for  a  short  time  one  of 
the  chaplains  at  the  court  of  Edward  VI. 

On  the  accession  of  Mary  Tudor*  he  fled  from 
England.  He  resided  in  Geneva  for  two  years  with 
Calvin,  Beza,  and  other  learned  reformers.  In  1559 
Knox  left  Geneva  for  his  native  country,  greatly 
strengthened  and  encouraged  by  his  intimate  com- 
munion with  Calvin. 

Knox,  in  his  theological  views,  was  an  ardent  dis- 
ciple of  Calvin,  and  a  bold  and  fearless  preacher.  He 
was  a  leader  in  the  political  affairs  of  his  country,  as 
well  as  in  the  ecclesiastical.  The  tyranny  and  dissimu- 
lation of  the  unpopular  Regent,  Mary  Guise,  together 
with  the  violent  intolerance  of  the  reforming  preachers, 

*To  the  throne  of  England. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  353 

produced  violent  and  disgraceful  scenes.  Iconoclasm 
was  a  prominent  feature  in  the  Scottish  reformation.  An 
insurrection  ensued  on  one  occassion,  when  some  of  the 
were  priests  preparing  to  celebrate  mass.  In  the  mad  fury 
of  the  people  the  images  of  the  churches  were  demolished, 
pictures  torn  from  the  walls,  and  the  houses  of  some  of 
the  Franciscan  and  Dominican  Friars  were  destroyed. 

Civil  war  raged  through  the  kingdom  between  the 
regent,  assisted  by  French  troops  and  the  lords  of  the 
congregation,  as  the  Protestant  leaders  were  called. 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  sent  powerful  assistance 
to  the  Protestants.  The  death  of  the  regent,  while  the 
city  of  Edinburgh  was  invested,  led  to  a  truce  and  to 
the  call  of  a  parliament  to  settle  differences.  Parlia- 
ment, in  1560,  established  the  reformed  religion  and 
Roman  Catholicism  was  interdicted.  When  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  came  to  her  kingdom  in  1561,  she 
summoned  John  Knox  to  her  presence.  He  discussed 
with  undaunted  vigor  the  questions  she  proposed  to 
him.  She  had  him  arrested  in  1563,  but  all  except  the 
dependents  of  the  court  acquitted  him. 

The  Presbyterian  churches  accepted  the  order  of 
Geneva.  The  Scots  have  inflexibly  held  to  the 
Presbyterian  form  of  government,  doctrine,  and  dis- 
cipline through  many  trials.  Though  we  may  not  fully 
sympathize  in  their  mode  of  worship,  nor  feel  satisfied 
with  their  ordination  (seeing  that  they  exclude  what  we 
deem  the  apostolic  mode),  yet  it  must  be  conceded  by 
every  candid  mind  that  the  Calvinists  of  Scotland  and 
Geneva  have  been  able  defenders  of  the  cardinal  truths  of 
our  holy  religion,  and  warm  advocates  of  civil  liberty. 

In  this  world  of  sin  they  have  been  active  in  batter- 
ing down   the  strongholds  of  Satan   by  well  directed 


354  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

engines  of  the  press  and  pulpit.  Mosheim,  in  tracing 
the  origin  and  progress  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  says 
this  church  was  called  Lutheran  because  it  would  not 
be  ungrateful  to  the  man  who  first  dispersed' the  clouds 
that  had  gathered  around  gospel  truth,  teaching  his 
hearers  to  place  no  reliance  upon  their  own  doings,  or 
upon  glorified  saints,  but  to  give  all  their  confidence  to 
Christ. 

We  date  the  commencement  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  from  the  time  when  Leo  X.  expelled  Martin 
Luther  and  his  adherents  from  the  Roman  Church  in 
1520.  It  acquired  a  permanent  form  in  1530,  when 
the  confession  of  its  faith  was  drawn  up  and  presented 
to  the  diet  of  Augsburg.  It  was  freed  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  pope  in  1552,  when  Maurice  of  Saxony 
made  2i pacification  with  Charles  V.  at  Passau.  Like  all 
Protestant  churches,  the  Lutheran  holds  that  the  rule 
for  a  correct  faith  and  holy  life  is  to  be  drawn  from  the 
Bible  itself.  This  church  has  certain  books,  such  as 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  the  Articles  of  Smalcald, 
and  the  Catechisms  of  Luther.  These,  like  the  ' '  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,"  are  deemed  to  be  digests  of  the 
sacred  oracles. 

The  prayer-book  of  Episcopalians  derives  much  of 
its  significance  from  its  being  a  record  of  the  utterances 
of  distinguished  saints  in  the  primitive  and  uncorrupted 
ages  of  the  church.  The  internal  regulation  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  is  intermediate  between  the  Episco- 
pal and  Presbyterian  forms  or  systems,  except  in  Swe- 
den and  Denmark,  where  the  Episcopal  form  is  re- 
tained. The  Lutherans  have  a  liturgy.  These  litur- 
gies have  been  often  amended,  as  circumstances  re- 
quired or  as  sovereigns  demanded.     They  commemo- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  355 

rate  the  great  festivals  of  the  Christian  year,  as  Christ- 
mas, Easter,  Ascension,  Pentecost. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  Switzerland  (called  usu- 
ally the  German  Reformed)  had  for  her  founder  and  most 
zealous  defender  Zwingle  or  Zuinglius.  This  church  dif- 
ered  but  little  in  the  beginning  from  the  Lutherans,  except 
in  regard  to  "the  Lord's  Supper."  The  father  of 
the  Swiss  Church  taught  that  the  bread  and  wine  repre- 
sent  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  The  Lord's  Sup- 
per, said  the  early  followers  of  Zuinglius,  is  simply  a 
memorial  of  Christ. 

Several  leading  men  f  among  the  reformers  tried  to 
assimulate  the  doctrine  of  Zuinglius  to  the  view  of 
Luther,  who  taught  consubstantiation  of  the  spiritual 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist.  One  of  the  illus- 
trations used  by  the  Lutherans  to  denote  this  idea  was 
"as  heat  dwells  in  iron,  but  it  does  not  change  it." 
John  Calvin  was  of  Noyon  in  France.  He  obtained 
the  direction  of  the  Church  in  Geneva  in  1541,  and  had 
vast  influence  in  the  republic.  It  was  his  aim  to  make 
Geneva  the  mother  of  the  whole  Reformed  Church  and 
the  focus  of  light,  as  Wittemberg  had  been  to  the 
Lutheran  community.  His  chief  influence  outside  of 
Switzerland  was  felt  in  France  ;  its  churches  looked-  to 
him  for  counsel  and  received  his  creed  and  polity.  He 
had  ceaseless  industry.  Calvin  was  an  intellectual 
giant,  How  wonderful  and  rich  were  his  mental  gifts ! 
But,  alas !  his  hard  temper,  together  with  the  inherited 
spirit  of  the  times,  betrayed  him  into  a  fearful  crime — 
the  persecution  unto  death  of  Michel   Servetus  for  her- 

NOTE. — The  Mercersburg  professors  are  said  lo  entertain  ncnv  differ- 
ent views  from  Zuinglius. 
t  Especially  Martin  Bucer. 


356  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

esy.  This  dark  shadow  constantly  rises  up  to  inter- 
cept his  brilliant  fame,  and  to  lessen  his  influence  as  a 
great  reformer. 

Beza,  who  succeeded  to  the  chair  of  theology  oc- 
cupied by  Calvin,  wrote  at  Calvin's  request  a  defense 
of  the  execution  of  Servetus;"  in  which  he  pleaded  the 
right  of  the  civil  power  to  punish  heresy.  Beza  after- 
wards greatly  modified  his  opinions.  He  was  a  man 
of  admirable  temper.  An  edict  of  toleration  in  France 
made  it  safe  for  Beza  to  return  to  his  own  country. 
He  was  very  anxious  to  proclaim  the  reformed  doc- 
trines in  Paris.  While  there  some  of  the  retainers  of 
the  Duke  of  Guise  attacked  a  congregation  of  Hugue- 
nots, assembled  in  a  barn  for  worship.  A  frightful 
massacre  ensued.  Beza  hastened  to  the  court  to  re- 
monstrate. One  of  the  nobles  present  threw  all  the 
blame  upon  the  Huguenots.  "  I  admit,  sire,"  said  the 
reformer,  "it  is  the  part  of  God's  church,  in  whose 
name  I  speak,  to  endure  rather  than  to  inflict  blows  ; 
but  may  it  please  you  to  remember  that  it  is  an  anvil 
which  has  worn  out  many  a  hammer." 

We  must  not  forget  while  speaking  of  the  many 
righteous  Protestants  of  this  era  to  mention  Borromeo, 
a  Romanist  of  Milan,  who  reminded  his  people  of 
the  good  deeds  of  Ambrose,  so  devoted  was  he  to  the 
duties  of  his  bishopric.  Borromeo  was  the  agent  in 
finishing  the  work  of  the  council  of  Trent  in  1563. 
He  was  the  most  unworldly  of  men,  and  as  benevolent 
as  he  was  unworldly. 

To  return  to  Calvin.  The  institution  of  Calvin 
continued  to  flourish  long  after  his  death,  in  1564. 
By  his  writings  and  his  famous  academy  of  learning  he 
induced  many  eminent  persons  to  emigrate  to  Geneva. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  357 

Calvin  introduced  at  Geneva  the  Presbyterian  form  of 
church  government.  The  disciples  of  Zuinglius  would 
not  accept  the  views  of  Calvin  on  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  were  also  much  opposed  to  his  views  of  predestina- 
tion. But  the  reformed  religion,  as  shaped  by  Calvin, 
took  up  a  permanent  residence  not  only  at  Geneva,  but 
it  had  many  adherents  in  France  and  Germany. 

Frederick  III.,  in  1560,  substituted  Calvinistic 
teachers  for  Lutheran  teachers.  There  were  friends  of 
the  reformation  in  France  from  a  very  early  time. 
The  encouragement  that  Francis  L  gave  to  learned 
men  induced  many  persons  of  genius  to  reside  in 
France.  Some  of  these  were  reformers,  and  they 
brought  with  them  Protestant  writings. 

William  Brissonet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  1530,  felt  and 
deplored  the  corruptions  of  the  Romish  Church.  He 
wished  to  work  a  reformation  in  his  diocese  without 
producing  a  schism.  He  associated  with  himself  sev- 
eral pure  spirits.  His  efforts  were  rendered  abortive 
by  persecution.  He  protected  for-  a  time  Le  Fevre, 
Farrel,  and  Roussel,  who  were  known  to  be  earnest 
reformers. 

The  lovely  Margaret  Valois,  of  Navarre,  the  sister 
of  Francis  L,  was  an  earnest  promoter  of  the  spread 
of  evangelical  religion.  Her  brother  rebuked  her  for 
the  protection  she  afforded  to  Lutherans.  She  prom- 
ised not  to  proceed  further,  if  he  would  grant  certain 
concessions.  Two  of  these  concessions  were  that  the 
host  should  not  be  worshiped,  and  that  the  cup  should 
be  given  to  the  laity.  This  famous  woman  was  the 
maternal  grandmother  of  Henry  IV.,  of  Navarre. 
"The  reformation  in  France,"  says  d'Aubigne, 
"was  self -adopted.''     It  put  out  shoots  in  the  university 


358  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

itself,  having  germinated  in  Paris.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
there  is  no  country  where  the  Huguenots  were  more 
fiercely  persecuted  than  in  France.  Their  confession  of 
faith  was  drawn  by  the  strong  hand  of  Calvin  at  a  gen- 
eral synod  in  May,  1559. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of  Henry  H.  that  the 
Huguenots  gained  so  much  strength  that  they  attempted 
to  become  the  dominant  party.  The  love  of  political 
power  was  a  leading  feature  in  some  of  the  members 
of  the  reform  party,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Romanist 
party.  Antony,  king  of  Navarre,  his  brother,  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  and  many  of  the  nobility  were  Prot- 
estants in  their  feelings  and  opinions.  They  belonged 
to  the  Huguenot  party,  with  perhaps  little  personal 
piety.  But  Admiral  de  Coligny,  the  greatest  general  and 
statesman  of  them  all,  combined  with  the  genius  of  a 
warrior  the  fervor  of  a  religious  reformer.  How 
grand  is  the  opportunity  of  doing  good  in  the-  State, 
when  men  like  de  Coligny  preside  in  its  council.* 

Catharine  de  Medicis,  the  widow  of  Henry  II.,  has 
become  a  synonym  for  the  most  monstrous  vices.  She 
cared  not  for  religion.  Power  was  the  idol  she  wor- 
shiped. She  was  the  ruler  behind  the  throne  during 
the  short  successive  reigns  of  two  of  her  sons.  The 
Duke  of  Guise,  a  Romanist  leader,  and  the  Princes  of 
Bourbon,  supported  by  the  Huguenots,  also  contended 
for  the  mastery  during  the  feeble  administration  of 
Catharine's  sons.  Some  concessions  made  by  the 
Guises  and  the  Queen  to  the  Huguenots,  to  serve  po- 
litical ends,  stirred  up  the  jealousy  of  the  Romanists. 

*  The  world  has  presented  few  such  models.  Washington,  in  our 
own  land,  Guizot  in  France,  and  the  present  Premier  in  England,  Mr. 
Gladstane,  are  striking  examples. 


ANNALS   OF   THE   CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  359 

In  order  to  pacify  them  war  was  renewed  with  the  Hugue- 
nots. After  a  bitter  contest  peace  was  declared  at  St. 
Germain  in  1570.  The  daughter  of  Catharine,  and  sis- 
ter of  Charles  IX,,  was  given  to  Henry  of  Navarre,  the 
great  military  leader  of  the  Huguenot  party.  This 
seeming  peace  culminated  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew, 1572.  It  was  instigated  by  the  queen  mother, 
and  occurred  on  the  night  of  the  marriage  of  her 
daughter. 


360  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

MASSACRE    OF    ST,    BARTHOLOMEW,    1572. 

This  horrible  massacre  was  instigated  by  the  queen 
mother ;  it  filled  Protestant  Europe  with  horror.  On 
this  night  perished  Coligny,  the  benefactor  of  France, 
of  whom  we  have  already  spoken,  with  many  other 
worthy  people.  Five  thousand  persons  perished  in 
Paris  alone.  One  mayor  only  in  the  numerous  cities 
of  France,  it  is  said,  had  the  moral  courage  to  despise 
the  edict  of  the  young  king,  Charles  IX.  This  boy  * 
died  in  less  than  two  years  of  nervous  prostration  and 
remorse.  Henry  III,  successor  to  Charles,  was  more 
jealous  of  the  League  than  of  the  Huguenots.  The 
Guises,  the  Duke  and  the  Cardinal,  were  at  the  head  of 
the  League.  This  League,  it  is  alleged,  had  been 
formed  for  the  extermination  of  the  Protestants,  but 
more  probably  with  the  purpose  of  transferring  the 
crown  of  France  to  the  head  of  the  Duke  of  Guise  at  the 
death  of  Henry  III,  whose  health  was  very  feeble.  Henry 
III.  procured  the  assassination  of  the  brothers,  the  Duke 
of  Guise  and  the  Cardinal,  but  was  himself  murdered  in 
a  short  time,  1589,  by  Clement,  a  Dominican  fanatic. 
Henry  IV.  now  acceded  to  the  throne;  he  reached  it  by 
onef  of  the  three  methods  of  obtaining  it,  the  success 
of  his  sword.  He  refused  to  take  Paris  ^7  assault,  lest 
he  should  sacrifice  too  many  lives.     To  give  peace  to 


*  He  was  but  nineteen  years  old. 

t  By  inheritance,  by  election,  by  the  sword. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  36I 

his  distracted  country,  he  declared  himself  a  Roman 
Catholic,  thus  forsaking  the  faith  of  his  fathers.  He 
issued  immediately  as  a  reparation  "the  Edict  of 
Nantes,"  which  gave  to  the  Huguenots  the  same  rights 
as  the  Romanists.  They  enjoyed  by  this  edict  full  re- 
ligious liberty. 

We  now  recede  a  little  to  speak  of  a  body  that  did 
not  wholly  sympathize  with  the  kings  and  queens.  The 
parliament  of  Paris  refused  to  register  some  of  the  de- 
crees against  the  Huguenots  made  by  the  wicked 
Katharine.  That  parliament  also  refused  to  register 
an  edict  for  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition  in 
France.  A  discussion  in  1559  took  place  in  the  par- 
liament condemning  former  rigors  and  urging  a  more 
merciful  policy.  Henry  H.,  husband  of  Katharine  de 
Medicis,  interposed  and  ordered  seT.>en  of  the  men  who 
recommended  mercy  to  be  imprisoned.  This  cruel 
monarch,  who  threatened  that  he  would  himself  see  the 
Huguenots  burned,  was  called  a  few  days  after  to  a 
higher  tribunal.  He  was  wounded  in  the  eye  at  a 
tournament,  which  caused  his  death. 

'  Henry,  duke  of  Navarre  (afterwards  Henry  IV:), 
was  a  heroic,  humane  man,  but  fanaticism  would 
not  suffer  him  to  live.  He  was  murdered  in  1610, 
leaving  the  Huguenots  without  a  protector.  They 
had  rest,  however,  during  the  administrations  of 
Richelieu  and  Mazarin.  They  (the  Huguenots)  were 
faithfid  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  actually 
fought  against  Conde  to  sustain  the  throne  of  Louis. 
In  1685  this  Grande  Monarque  revoked  \he  Edict  of  Nantes. 
This  revocation  made  500,000  of  the  best  citizens  of 
France  to  flee  to  other  countries  and  live  in  exile. 
Large    numbers   were    sheltered    in    England.      Many 


362  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

came  to   America.     The   names   of  their   descendants 
are  still  recognized  among  oiif  people. 

Among  the  sects  that  arose  in  Germany  about  this 
time  were  the  Anabaptists  of  Westphalia.  This  sect, 
now  so  learned  and  pious,  were  in  their  origin  connected 
with  fanaticism  and  sedition.  Some  of  the  princes  of 
Germany,  incensed  by  the  seditious  leaders  of  the  Ana- 
baptists, persecuted  the  whole  society.  Munzer  and 
his  associates  in  Saxony  and  in  other  German  prov- 
inces proclaimed  war  in  1525  against  all  law  and  civil 
government,  declaring  that  Christ-  alone  would  reign 
from  that  time  forward.  The  Anabaptists,  by  the 
favor  of  William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange,  acquired  a  quiet 
residence  in  Belgium.  William  I.,  the  great  vindicator 
of  Batavian  liberty,  accepted  the  simple  affirmation  of 
these  enthusiasts,  not  requiring  from  them  a  citizen's 
oath.  In  1689  messengers  from  a  hundred  congrega- 
tions in  England  and  Wales,  met  in  London,  and  drew 
up  a  confession,  very  similar  to  the  Westminster  and 
Savoy  Conferences. 

The  troubles  of  the  Baptists  seem  to  have  re- 
sulted chiefly  from  their  interference  with  the  civil 
governments.  Some  of  them  had  very  just  views 
of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  but  they  brought  much 
odium  upon  themselves  in  railing  at  "the  higher  pow- 
ers." It  was  under  very  different  circumstance's  that 
Roger  Williams  denied  the  right  of  the  magistrate  to 
impose  faith  and  worship,  also  the  right  of  the  king  to 
take  the  lands  of  the  Indians  without  purchase.  To 
obtain  the  freedom  he  desired  he  retired  to  the  shores 
of  Narragansett,  R.  I.,  where  he  founded  the  city  called 
Providence.  Williams  and  his  coadjutors  founded  the 
first  Baptist  church  in  America.     They  instituted  bap- 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  363 

tism  by  immersion,  Holliman,  a  lay  elder,  baptizing 
Williams  and  he  baptizing  the  elder.  Williams  had 
been  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  after- 
wards an  elder  among  the  Puritans  at  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts. Persecution  drove  him  to  Rhode  Island. 
Roger  Williams  was  a  noble,  large-hearted  man.  Civil 
and  religious  liberty  are  greatly  indebted  to  him.  The 
history  of  Williams,  say  his  biographers,  was  for  half  a 
century  the  history  of  Providence,  R.  I.  He  made 
several  trips  to  England,  where  he  received  ass.'stance 
for  his  colony.  He  was  made  president  of  the  colony 
in  1654.  He  enjoyed  when  in  England  intimate  com- 
munion with  John  Milton.  Williams  would  not  per- 
secute the  Quakers,  but  discussed  with  some  of  their 
leaders  the  importance  of  the  sacraments. 

Washings  and  sprinklings  have  formed  a  part  of  the 
religious  ceremonies  of  all  nations.  This  rite  of  initia- 
tion arose  doubtless  from  a  sense  of  impurity.  When 
the  Jewish  ceremonial  law  was  instituted  by  Moses, 
with  its  various  washings  prescribed  to  priest  and 
people,  they  were  intended  ^to  convey  to  their  dark- 
ened minds  the  idea  of  holiness,  and  the  necessity  of 
purification  in  approaching  God  in  worship.  These 
people  understood  the  power  of  Jehovah,  but  they  had 
little  conception  of  his  holiness  or  love.  They  were 
brutalized  by  the  superstitions  of  Egypt  and  the  evil 
treatment  they  had  received. 

John  the  Baptist  called  upon  his  followers  to  be 
baptized.  Our  Lord  received  baptism  either  by 
immersion  or  pouring,  and  he  commanded  his  dis- 
ciples to  teach  and  baptize  all  nations.  Baptists 
claim  that  the  immersion  of  believing  adults  was 
the  primitive  baptism.      It  is  conceded  by  many  who 


364  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

now  use  sprinkling  that  immersion  was  the  most 
usual  mode  in  the  early  church.  It  is  still  exclusively 
practiced  by  the  Oriental  churches  and  the  Greek 
church,  but  these  immerse  their  infants.  The  Western 
church,  some  centuries  before  the  Reformation,  adopted 
sprinkling  as  most  convenient,  especially  in  the  cold 
countries  of  Northern  Europe. 

An  effort  was  made  in  the  sixteenth  century  to  re- 
store immersion  to  the  church,  but  except  in  the  case 
of  the  Anabaptists  the  effort  was  unsuccessful.  The 
Episcopal  Church  makes  it  optional  with  the  subject 
whether  immersion  or  sprinkling  should  be  used. 
Baptists  refuse  to  accept  infants  as  proper  subjects  of 
baptism.  A  large  class  of  Baptists,  inasmuch  as  they 
consider  baptism  as  the  door  of  entrance  to  their  com- 
munion, decline  to  partake  of  the  "sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper"  with  other  Christian  denominations. 
Open  communion,  however,  has  been  eloquently  ad- 
vocated by  Robert  Hall,  the  great  Baptist  divine  of 
England.  Within  the  present  century  the  Baptists 
have  advanced  rapidly  in  numbers  and  influence.* 
Under  the  name  of  Baptists,  a  great  variety  of  sects 
are  embraced.  John  Bunyan,  who  lived  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  the  author  of  "  Pilgrim's  Progress," 
was  a  Baptist.  Baptists  all  agree  in  maintaining  the 
congregational  form  of  church  government. 

The  advocates  of  infant  baptism  argue  somewhat  in 
this  manner:  "God  said  to  Abraham,  every  man  child 
among  you  shall  be  circumcised."  By  this  command 
circumcision  became  the  rite  of  the  Abrahamic  cove- 


*The  disciples  of  Carey  who  planted  a  Baptist  mission  in  India  in 
1796,  have  done  much  to  evangelize  India;  also  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson, 
who  went  thither  from  the  United  States. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF,  CHRIST.  365 

nant,  and  is  declared  by  St.  Paul  to  be  the  sign  and 
seal  of  that  covenant;  this  sign  and  seal  was  admin- 
istered to  infants.  If  baptism  comes  in  the  place  of 
circumcision,  the  presumption  is  that  Jesus,  by  the 
words  "make  disciples  of  all  naiions, "  baptizing  them 
meant  that  baptism  should  be  administered  to  infants. 
When  Jesus  said  "Suffer  little  children  to  come  unto 
me,  for  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  nothing  is 
said  of  baptism,  but  there  is  no  prohibition.  If  by  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  is  meant  the  heavenly  society  and 
church  of  Christ's  kingdom,  then  there  is  encourage- 
ment to  parents  to  bring  their  children  to  God  in  bap- 
tism. 

We  have  no  account  in  Scripture  of  the  baptism  of 
Christ's  disciples.  They  were  probably  baptized  by 
John  the  Baptist,  but  there  is  no  record  of  it.  We 
read  of  the  baptism  of  households.  In  such  cases  the 
faith  of  the  parent  or  guardian  was  accepted.  In  physical 
diseases  our  Lord  sometimes  accepted  the  faith  of  the 
parent  in  the  healing  of  the  child.  When  Peter  says 
"  Be  baptized  every  one  of  you  ....  (or  the  profuise 
is  unto  you  and  your  children, "  he  was  speaking  to  Jews 
who  knew  that  the  promise  of  Abraham  was  to  them 
and  to  their  children,  they  vvould  naturally  infer  that  the 
blessings  of  the  gospel  would  not  be  less  extensive. 
Infant  baptism  was  practiced  in  the  early  church,  and 
in  whatever  way  administered  it  devolved  upon  the 
children  to  confirm  this  dedication  when  they  reached 
mature  years. 

Church  history  asserts  that  the  baptized  presented 
themselves  to  the  bishop  to  receive  the  laying  on  of 
hands.  In  this  rite  they  declared  their  personal  faith 
in  Christ,  and  made  a  solemn  renunciation  of  a  worldly, 


366  ANNALS.  OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

sinful  life.  Confirmation,  or  laying  on  of  hands,  is  not 
regarded  by  Protestants  as  a  sacrament  but  as  a  holy 
rite. 

Our  Lord  said  to  Nicodemus,  "Except  ye  be  born 
of  water  and  of  the  Spirit  ye  can  not  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  God."  (St.  John,  third  chapter).  Some 
Christians  suppose  that  this  declaration  means  that  no 
person  can  be  admitted  to  heaven  who  has  not  been 
baptized  with  water.  St.  Paul's  language  perhaps 
strengthens  this  opinion,  "He  saved  us  by  the  wash- 
ing of  regeneration,  and  the  renewing  of  the  Holy 
Ghost."  The  Church  of  Rome  considers  baptism 
when  administered  by  a  priest  with  good  intention,  as 
applying  the  merits  of  Christ  to  the  person  baptized. 
Hence  their  great  anxiety  for  the  early  baptism  of 
children,  believing  this  sacrament  necessary  to  salva" 
tion.  Augustine,  the  famous  bishop  and  writer  of  the 
fourth  century,  made  a  distinction  between  the  regene- 
ration produced  by  the  waters  of  baptism  and  the  pi'e- 
dcstinated.  The  reception  of  this  sacrament  either  by 
an  infant  or  adult  would  deliver  them,  he  taught,  from 
the  wrath  or  sin  which  the  children  of  Adam  inherit, 
but  unless  they  were  predestined  to  salvation  they 
would  not  persevere  in  that  state  to  which  they  had 
been  regenerated.  Inasmuch  as  our  Lord  invites  all  to 
come  to  him  and  partake  of  the  water  of  life  freely,  and 
as  St.  Paul  too  declares  that  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  was 
a  propitiation  for  the  sins  of  the  tvhole  world,  we  can 
not  sympathize  in  this  view  of  the  great  theologian 
Augustine.  We  believe  that  all  who  come  to  God  in 
sincerity  will  be  accepted.  All  who  are  baptized  by 
an  authorized  minister,  whether  infant  or  adult,  in  the 
exercise  of  faith,  are  brought  into  covenant  with  God, 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  36/ 

into  a  state  of  salvation.  Christ  has  not  established  a 
nullity  in  giving  us'baptism,  if  we  receive  it  according 
to  his  command  by  faith  and  repentance.  The  blood 
of  Christ  is  surely  available  to  the  unbaptized  when 
opportunity  is  wanting.      God  is  a  God  of  love. 


S68  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

The  Quakers,  a  sect  that  arose  in  England  in  the 
early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  whose  founder 
was  George  Fox,  refuse  to  accept  either  baptism  or 
the  Lord's  supper  as  obligatory  upon  them.  They  con- 
sider these  sacraments  merely  as  symbolical  actions, 
the  one  shadowing  forth  the  inward  purification  of  the 
soul;  the  other,  the  intimate  communion  which  Chris- 
tians enjoy  with  Christ.  They  say  our  Lord  conde- 
scended to  use  these  sacraments  in  accommodation 
to  the  weakness  of  his  disciples  and  followers,  but  all 
sacraments  became  unnecessar)'  after  the  outpouring  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  upon  the  day  of  Pentecost.  They 
consider  it  wrong  to  prepare  a  sermon,  or  to  preach,  in 
the  ordinary  sense  of  that  word ;  they  must  not  indeed 
"neglect  the  assembling  of  themselves  together,"  but 
in  their  assemblies  they  must  wait  for  the  impulse  of 
the  Spirit  before  they  attempt  to  pray  aloud  or  exhort. 
They  did  not  acknowledge  the  necessity  of  a  regular 
ministry ;  each  man  or  woman  in  their  meetings,  who 
was  moved,  as  they  supposed,, by  the  Spirit  of  God, 
stood  upon  the  same  plane  and  possessed  equal 
authority. 

Notwithstanding  their  fanatical  and  fanciful  views  on 
many  points  in  religion,  they  incorporated  into  their 
system  some  sound  practical  principles,  which  have 
challenged  the  respect  of  all.  They  have  adopted  liter- 
ally, under  all  circumstances,  the  words  of  our  Saviour 
as  to  non-resistance.     They  say  that  war  is  wholly  at 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       369 

variance  with  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  which  continually 
breathes  peace  on  earth  and  good  will  to  all  men.  The 
Quaker,  therefore,  never  engages  in  war,  and  would 
never  hold  in  bondage  a  fellow-creature. 

As  it  regards  slavery  and  war,  the  principles  of  the 
Quaker  must  ever  be  accepted,  in  the  abstract,  by 
Christians  of  every  name  ;  but  in  the  question  of  self- 
defense,  either  of  individuals  or  nations,  a  formidable 
obstacle  is  presented  to  its  practical  working.  But,  if 
the  doctrines  of  the  Quakers  were  carried  out,  "  nation 
would  not  lift  up  the  sword  against  nation,  nor  would 
men  learn  war  any  more." 

George  Fox,  the  founder  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
was  educated  in  the  Church  of  England.  From  child- 
hood he  led  a  religious  life.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
shoemaker,  who  also  kept  sheep  ;  his  occupation  was 
chiefly  that  of  a  shepherd.  Passing  much  of  his  time 
in  retirement,  and  being  earnestly  engaged  for  the  salva- 
tion of  his  soul,  he  diligently  read  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
waiting  on  the  Lord  to  be  taught  by  His  Spirit  their 
true  meaning. 

"This  sect  had  its  birth,"  says  Mr.  Bancroft  (he 
has  given  us  a  beautiful  chapter  on  the  rise  of  Quaker- 
ism), "  in  a  period  of  intense  public  activity  —  when 
the  heart  of  England  was  swelling  with  passions,  and 
the  public  mind  turbulent  with  factious  leaders ;  when 
a  zeal  for  reform  was  invading  the  Church,  subverting 
the  throne,  and  repealing  the  privileges  of  feudalism  ; 
when  Presbyterians  in  every  village  were  quarreling 
with  Independents  and  Anabaptists,  and  all  with  the 
English  Church  and  with  the  Roman  Catholics,"* 

*  History  of  the  United  States. 


370       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

George  Fox  was  set  by  his  employer  to  watch 
sheep.  He  was  a  shepherd,  Hke  David,  and  Tamer- 
lane, and  Sixtus  V.  The  occupation  wa&  grateful  to 
his  mind ;  the  years  thus  engaged  were  passed  away  in 
prayer  and  in  reading  the  Bible,  in  frequent  fasts,  and 
in  reveries  of  contemplative  devotion.  He  commenced 
preaching  at  nineteen  years  of  age.  One  day  the 
thought  rose  in  his  mind  that  a  man  might  be  bred  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  yet  be  unable  to  solve  the 
problem  of  his  existence.  Again,  he  reflected  that 
God  lives  not  in  temples  of  brick  or  stone,  but  in  the 
hearts  of  the  living.  From  the  parish  priest,  he  turned 
to  the  dissenters,  but  he  found  them  unable  to  reach 
his  condition.  He  now  determined,  within  himself, 
that  truth  is  to  be  sought  for  by  listening  to  the  voice 
of  God  in  the  soul. 

The  "inner  light"  from  henceforth  must  be  the 
guide  of  the  Quaker.  The  Bible  is  the  religion  of  Pro- 
testants. Had  the  Quaker  a  better  guide  ?  The  Quaker 
rejoined,  that  he  believed  in  the  unity  of  truth  ;  there 
can  be  no  contradiction  between  right  reason  and  prev- 
ious revelation,  between  just  tradition  and  an  enlight- 
ened conscience.  The  letter  is  not  the  spirit ;  the  Bible 
is  not  religion,  but  a  record  of  religion.  The  Scrip- 
tures (said  one  of  their  leaders)  are  a  declaration  of  the 
fountain,  and  not  the  fountain  itself. 

'  *  They  are  a  people, ' '  said  Oliver  Cromwell,  ' '  whom 
I  can  not  win  with  gifts,  honors,  offices,  or  places." 

' '  We  agree  with  other  professors  of  the  Christian 
name,"  say  the  most  reliable  Quaker  authorities,  "in 
the  belief  in  one  eternal  God,  the  Creator  of  the  uni- 
verse ;  and  in  Jesus  Christ  His  Son,  the  Messiah,  and 
Mediator  of  the  New  Covenant.     To  Christ  alone  we 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  3/1 

give  the  title  of  the  Word  of  God ;  although  we  highly 
esteem  these  sacred  writings  in  subordination  to  the 
Spirit.  We  believe  that,  in  order  to  put  in  practice 
those  sacred  precepts,  some  of  which  are  contrary  to 
the  unregenerate  heart  or  will  of  man,  every  man 
is  endued  with  a  measure  of  the  Spirit,  sufficient,  if 
cherished,  to  enable  him  to  distinguish  good  from  evil ; 
and  to  correct  his  evil  propensities,  which  mere  reason 
is  insufficient  to  overcome.  We  believe,  true  worship 
is  not  confined  to  time  and  place ;  but  we  think  it 
incumbent  on  Christians  to  meet  often  together,  in  tes- 
timony of  their  dependence  upon  God,  and  for  a  re- 
newal of  their  spiritual  strength.  Nevertheless,  we  dare 
not  depend  for  our  acceptance  with  him,  on  a  formal 
repetition  of  the  words  and  experiences  of  others.  We 
dare  not  encourage  any  ministry,  but  that  which  we 
believe  to  spring  from  th«  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
We  attempt  not  to  restrain  this  influence  to  persons  of 
any  condition  in  life,  or  to  the  male  sex  alone  ;  but,  as 
male  and  female  are  one  in  Christ  Jesus,  we  allow  such 
of  the  female  sex  as  are  endued  with  qualifications  for 
the  ministry,  to  exercise  their  gifts  for  the  edifying  of 
the  Church." 

We  have  already  spoken  of  their  rejection  of  the 
sacraments,  of  their  opposition  to  war  and  slavery,  and 
their  testimony  against  oaths.  One  of  their  most 
peculiar  customs,  is  the  refusal  of  the  men  to  take  off 
the  hat  in  any  presence.  It  is  related  of  William  Penn, 
the  celebrated  founder  of  Pennsylvania,  that  when  his 
father.  Admiral  Penn,  earnestly  solicited  his  son,  then 
a  young  man,  to  doff  his  hat  in  respect  to  the  King 
and  Duke  of  York,  he  persistently  refused.  He  pre- 
ferred to  break  the  commandment  of  God,  Honor  thy 


372  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

father,  rather  than  depart  from  the  unmeaning  custom 
of  his  sect.  When  he  was  a  student  at  Oxford,  Eng- 
land, he  not  only  refused  to  conform  to  the  worship  of 
the  established  Church,  or  to  wear  the  dress  prescribed 
for  students,  which  lie  considered  a  relic  of  superstition, 
but  with  some  of  his  companions  who  had  embraced 
his  views,  assaulted  several  of  the  students  in  public 
and  stripped  them  of  their  linen  surplices  or  robes. 
For  this  outrage  he  was  expelled. 

Quakers  in  the  seventeenth  century  were  frequently 
imprisoned  for  refusing  to  take  the  prescribed  oaths, 
also  their  refusal  to  pay  taxes  or  tithes,  Penn,  how- 
ever, was  a  great  favorite  of  Charles  II.  and  James  II. 
Penn  interceded  with  these  monarchs  very  successfully 
for  his  Quaker  brethren,  and  for  himself  he  received 
large  grants  of  land  on  the  Delaware,  in  America.  He 
also  had  powerful  friends  afterwards  at  the  court  of 
William  and  Mary,  in  Locke  and  Tillotson,  and  in  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham. 

The  wise  and  Christian  government  of  William 
Penn  *  in  Pennsylvania,  and  his  kind  and  honest  deal- 
ings with  the  Indians,  have  entirely  overshadowed  the 
fanatacism  and  inconsistencies  of  his  youth.  The  name 
and  character  of  this  lover  of  freedom  and  of  equal 
rights  have  come  down  to  the  sect  whom  he  loved  so 
much,  as  a  noble  inheritance. 

Fox,  Barclay  and  Penn  were  the  three  great  leaders 
of  this  peculiar  people.  It  is  believed  that  this  sect 
has  somewhat  dwindled  in  numbers  in  the  nineteenth 
century.      Many  of  their  descendants  in  England  have 

*  William  Penn,  however,  freely  employed  negroes,  and  died  a 
slave-holder  —  though  his  people  generally  refused  to  consider  them  as 
property. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  373 

gone  into  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  have  adopted 
those  forms  of  worship,  which,  in  their  early  history, 
seemed  to  be  most  obnoxious.  The  decline  in  their 
numbers  is  most  probably  to  be  ascribed  to  the  neglect 
of  the  Sacraments,  appointed  by  our  Lord  Himself. 
Their  excellent  principles  and  moral  virtues  as  a  com- 
munity, must  be  conceded. 

The  Independents,  a  sect  who  arose  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  became  very  conspicuous  during 
the  time  of  Cromwell's  rule  in  England,  express  as 
follows  the  leading  principle  of  their  system  :  ' '  Every 
particular  society  of  visible  professors  agreeing  to  walk 
together  in  the  faith  and  order  of  the  gospel  is  a  com- 
plete church,  and  has  full  power  within  itself  to  elect 
and  ordain  all  church  officers,  to  exclude  all  offenders, 
and  to  do  all  other  acts  relating  to  the  edification  and 
well-being  of  the  Church."  Their  doctrines  were  very 
similar  to  the  Presbyterians,  adopting  the  system  of 
Calvin  for  their  creed. 

Robinson,  the  author  of  the  sect  of  the  Inde- 
pendents, regarded  a  standing  ministry  as  use- 
less. He  was  the  leading  teacher  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers.  Cromwell  and  his  Ironsides  belonged  to  this 
sect.  The  whole  body  sets  apart  with  religious  solem- 
nity certain  persons  under  the  name  of  pastors,  teach- 
ers or  elders,  who  derive  their  title  to  act  in  that  capac- 
ity solely  from  the  nomination  of  their  society,  and 
who,  in  virtue  of  that  nomination,  are  the  only  persons 
entitled  to  perform  the  acts,  such  as  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments  and  other  ofifices  that  may  minister 
to  edification.  The  name  of  Independent  was  after- 
wards changed  to  the  present  name  they  bear — Con- 
gregationalist. 


374  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

The  Presbyterians,  on  the  contrary,  have  a  system 
of  church  government,  by  presbyteries  or  associations, 
of  teaching  or  ruHng  elders.  This  system  is  estab- 
lished by  law  in  Scotland,  as  the  Episcopal  system  is 
established  by  law  in  England.  Both  *  claim  to  have 
derived  the  power  of  ordination  from  the  apostles,  the 
one  through  the  line  of  bishops  by  apostolic  succession, 
the  other  through  the  presbyters  or  elders. 

When  Christianity  emerges  from  the  obscurity  o 
the  first  century,  says  Milman,  it  appears  uniformly 
governed  by  superiors  in  each  community,  called  bishops. 
Some  learned  writers,  as  Mosheim,  Neander,  and  Gib- 
bon, consent  to  the  fact  of  the  government  of  these 
superiors  or  bishops  in  the  early  part  of  the  second 
century  ;  but  believing  from  the  beginning  it  was  not  so, 
they  attempted  to  account  for  this  total  revolution  by 
supposing  that  each  community  or  church  was  governed 
by  a  college  of  presbyters,  one  of  whom  naturally  pre- 
sided at  their  meetings,  and  gradually  assumed,  and 
was  recognized  as  possessing,  a  superior  function. 

But  the  almost  simultaneous  elevation  of  the  bishop 
in  every  part  of  the  Christian  world  (though  the  bishop 
was  for  a  long  time  assisted  by  his  presbyters)  appears 
to  me  an  insuperable  objection  to  this  hypothesis. f  Ac- 
cording to  this  view  (the  view  of  Mosheim)  they  al- 
lowed themselves  to  be  deprived  of  their  co-equal  dig- 
nity, without  resistance  and  without  controversy.  The 
uninterrupted  line  of  bishops  is  traced  by  the  ecclesias- 
tical historian  up  to  the  apostles ;  but  no  murmur  of 
remonstrance  against  this  usurpation  has  transpired. 
Episcopalians  believe  that  the  bishops  spoken  of  in  the 
third    chapter    of    Paul's    epistle    to    Timothy    were 

♦The  Episcopalian  and  Presbyterian  both  claim,     f  Milman. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  375 

identical  with  the  presbyters  and  elders,  but  that  the 
Bishops  of  Ephesus  and  Crete  were  office-bearers  of 
the  same  order  as  the  Bishops  in  after  ages. 

The  Presbyterians  argue  that  Timothy  and  Titus 
were  extraordinary  office-bearers,  suited  to  the  infant 
state  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  Presbyterians  say 
that  their  church  government  has  its  germ  in  the  Old 
Testament,  inasmuch  as  the  people  of  Israel,  at  various 
periods  of  their  history,  had  wise  and  able  men  set 
over  them  who  were  styled  elders,  and  that  this  was  a 
distinctive  feature  of  the  synagogue  system  up  to  the 
time  of  the  Savior.  The  model  of  the  ancient  com- 
munity would  naturally,  as  far  as  circumstances  might 
admit,  become  that  of  the  new.  But  in  their  primary 
constitution  there  was  an  essential  point  of  difference. 
The  Jews  were  a  civil,  as  well  as  a  religious ;  the  Chris- 
tians, exclusively  a  religious,  community. 

In  making  an  epitome  of  the  several  Protestant 
sects  who  arose  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, we  must  not  forget  "the  little  flock "  of  the 
Moravians,  also  called  the  United  Brethren.  Christian- 
ity was  introduced  into  Moravia  and  Bohemia  by  mis- 
sionaries who  came  from  countries  in  which  the  apostle 
Paul  had  preached  and  founded  churches.  These  were 
provinces  doubtless  connected  with  the  Greek  Church. 
For  several  centuries  the  people  of  Bohemia  and  Mo- 
ravia manifested  matters  of  faith,  a  close  adherence  to 
the  doctrines  of  the  New  Testament.  They  held  fast 
to  church  principles,  in  opposition  sometimes  to  the 
injunctions  of  the  bishop  at  Rome.  They  insisted  that 
the  Bible  was  the  only  rule  of  faith  and  practice.  They 
claim  John  Huss  as  one  of  their  martyrs,  who,  in  1415, 
was  burned  at  the  stake  by  the  order  of  the  Council  of 


376  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Constance.  We  have  already  spoken  fully  of  his  mar- 
trydom,  and  also  of  the  interchange  of  religious  senti- 
ments that  passed  freely  between  England  and  Bohemia 
in  Wycliffe's  time,  through  the  religious  efforts  of  Anne 
of  Bohemia,  the  wife  of  Richard  II. 

Whether  indigenous  or  transplanted,  the  doctrines 
of  our  Lord  flourished  in  Moravia  and  Bohemia  as  in  a 
kindly  soil.  But  after  the  martyrdom  of  Huss,  and 
after  much  dreadful  persecution  and  opposition,  they 
seemed  to  forget  for  a  time,  in  the  war  waged  against 
them,  that  love  or  charity  is  the  essence  of  Christ's 
religion. 

In  1433,  the  Council  of  Basle  granted  to  the  Hus- 
sites (as  the  people  ate  called,  from  whom  the  Mora- 
vians are  descended),  the  famous  compacts,  thereby 
granting  their  essential  demands.  One  party  refused  to 
receive  these  concessions,  whereupon  the  other  party,  the 
Calixtines,  made  war  upon  them  and  entirely  defeated 
them.  The  Calixtines  now  became  the  national  church 
of  Bohemia.  A  remnant  of  the  other  party,*  not 
liking  the  corrupt  practices  of  the  Calixtines,  deter- 
mined to  recede  from  them.  Through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  their  bishop  they  obtained  leave  from  the  Re- 
gent of  Bohemia  to  settle  on  one  of  his  estates,  called 
the  Barony  of  Litiz.  Their  pastors  were  Calixtine 
priests,  who  held  evangelical  views,  and  who  had  joined 
their  society.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  modern 
Moravian  Church. 

In  1 46 1,  by  the  treachery  and  at  the  instigation  of 
one  of  their  leaders,  a  fierce  persecution  fell  upon  them. 
After  much  deliberation  they  f  determined  to  separate 
from  the  national  establishment,  and  to  change  their 

*  Taborites.     tThe  Taborites. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  377 

society  into  an  independent  church.  To  do  this  it  was 
necessary  to  institute  a  ministry  of  their  own.  Anx- 
ious to  secure  a  ^ministry  whose  validity  was  unques- 
tionable, and  one  that  the  Calixtines  and  Roman  Cath- 
olics must  acknowledge,  they  determined  to  seek  the 
Episcopal  succession  from  a  colony  of  XValdenses,  liv- 
ing on  the  confines  of  Bohemia  and  Austria,  who  had 
obtained  this  succession.  The  Waldensian  bishop 
consecrated  three  men  who  had  been  sent  them  by 
their  synod,  as  their  bishops.  About  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century  they  had  more  than  200  churches. 
They  had  published  a  Bohemian  version  of  the  Bible. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  they  sent  deputations  to  Lu- 
ther. There  were  some  differences  of  opinion  between 
them  and  the  Lutherans,  yet  their  conferences  were 
friendly.  When  the  Moravian  deputation  took  leave  of 
Luther,  the  great  reformer  said,  when  he  bade  them 
Godspeed:  "Do  you  be  apostles  of  the  Bohemians  as 
I  and  my  brethren  are  apostles  of  the  Germans." 

In  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  out- 
ward prosperity  of  the  "United  Brethren,"  as  they 
were  now  called,  was  fully  established.  In  1621,  Fer- 
dinand II.  began  a  series  of  persecutions,  directed 
against  all  the  Protestants  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 
Protestantism  was  overthrown  in  these  countries.  But 
more  than  50,000  emigrated.  The  church  of  the 
United  Brethren  seemed  to  disappear,  but  a  hidden 
seed  was  preserved  for  ninety-four  years.  This  seed 
was  fostered  by  Comenius,  a  bishop  of  the  Moravian 
line.  In  Moravia  many  families  had  cherished  in  secret 
the  views  of  their  fathers.  Just  fifty  years  after  the 
death  of  Comenius,  their  bishop,  a  colony  of  Moravians 
established  themselves  on  an  estate  of  a  pious  noble- 


378  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

man,  Count  Zinzendorf.  They  built  here  a  town, 
called  it  Herrnhut,  introduced  the  discipline  of  their 
fathers,  preserved  by  the  writings  of  their  last  bishop. 
They  now  obtained  the  episcopate  from  the  Unitas 
Fratrum  (the  national  church  from  which  they  had  sep- 
ated).  In  this  way  the  ancient  Moravian  society  was 
again  renewed.  Zinzendorf  renounced  all  worldly  hon- 
ors and  became  a  bishop,  devoting  himself  to  the  serv- 
ice of  the  Church. 

Churches  were  planted  in  various  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent in  Great  Britain  and  North  America.  In  North 
America,  they  were  devoted  to  the  missions  among 
the  Indians.  In  1749  the  British  Parliament  acknowl- 
edged the  Moravia  brethren  as  an  Episcopal  Church, 
and  passed  an  act  encouraging  them  to  settle  in  the 
North  American  colonies.  They  established  several 
mission  stations  in  Southern  Greenland.  These  mis- 
sions were  paid  for  by  the  Church  of  England,  but  the 
missionaries  were  Moravian. 

The  Moravian  brethren  have  not  increased  in  the 
United  States  as  other  denominations.  Two  causes 
have  been  assigned.  First,  the  entire  strength  of  the 
Moravian  Brethren  in  this  country  was  concentrated  on 
the  foreign  mission  field.  Secondly,  their  exclusive 
system.  No  one  was  permitted  to  own  real  estate  in 
their  communities  unless  they  were  members  of  their 
church.  This  system  was  changed  in  a  general  synod 
held  in  1857,  and  a  way  opened  for  a  more  general  de- 
velopment of  the  church  resources  in  the  home  field. 
A  community  of  goods  never  existed  among  them,  as 
has  been  sometimes  stated.  In  early  times,  during  In- 
dian wars,  they  combined  their  efforts  for  the  protec- 
tion of    their   people.       The   Moravian   ministry,    like 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  3/9 

that  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  has  bish- 
ops, priests,  and  deacons.  Their  ritual  also  is  very 
similar.  They  have  love  feasts  in  imitation  of  the 
apostolical  Agapee.  Their  ritual  also  is  very  similar. 
They  have  regular  forms  for  adult  and  infant  baptism, 
for  the  Lord's  Supper,  for  marriage  and  burial,  and  for 
confirmation. 


380  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

ACCESSION     OF     ELIZABETH  —  CONSECRATION    OF    PARKER. 

It  were  an  arduous  task  in  one  who  has  attempted 
to  give  the  Annals  of  the  Church  from  the  beginning, 
to  tread  all  the  mazes  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
England,  from  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  to  the  reign 
of  William  and  Mary.  When  we  look  at  the  distrac- 
tions and  dissensions  of  the  Church  during  the  Coimnon- 
wealth,  followed  by  the  immoral  reign  of  Charles  II., 
and  that  of  his  more  wicked  brother,  James  II.,  and  to 
go  further  back  and  observe  the  varied  and  difficult  ques- 
tions that  were  presented  to  the  clergy  and  the  worldly 
queen  at  her  accession,  we  are  constrained  to  say, 
"What  hath  God  wrought  in  bringing  the  Church  of 
England,  as  we  see  it  to-day,  a  church  of  order  and 
beauty,  out  of  the  chaotic  mass  of  trouble  and  gloom 
that  encompassed  it  in  the  sixteenth  century  ?  " 

We  will  try,  during  that  stormy  time,  to  seize 
upon  some  salient  points  of  interest  without  wearying 
or  disgusting  the  reader.  During  the  five  years  of 
Mary  Tudor's  reign,  much  that  was  perishable  had 
been  destroyed.  The  fires  of  Smithfield  had  burned 
fiercely,  but  a  living  flame  still  glowed  in  the  hearts  of 
those  who  loved  the  reforming  work  of  Cranmer,  Rid- 
ley, Latimer,  Hooper,  and  a  cloud  of  other  witnesses, 
whose  bodies  had  been  burned,  but  the  books  in  which 
they  had  preserved  the  treasures  of  the  best,  earliest 
ages  of   the  Church  remained.      Thousands  who  had 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  38 1 

fled  to  the  continent  returned  when  they  knew  a  friend 
to  reform  was  on  the  throne.  Thirteen  bishops  had 
died  just  before  Elizabeth's  accession.  Not  one  had 
conformed  but  the  Bishop  of  Llandafif.  It  was  a  re- 
sponsible and  difficult  matter  to  fill  the  vacant  sees  with 
good,  efficient  men.  A  primate  must  be  chosen. 
Matthew  Parker,  who  had  been  the  chaplain  of  Anne 
Boleyn,  and  much  beloved  by  Elizabeth,  was  made 
primate.  He  was  a  devout  man.  He  had  been  Dean 
of  Lincoln  in  King  Edward's  time,  but  seemed  unwil- 
ling at  first  to  assume  the  onerous  duties  of  the  Epis- 
copate, the  responsibilities  involved  were  so  great.  The 
Lord  Keeper,  who  was  his  intimate  friend,  used  his  en- 
couraging influence,  and  perhaps  high  moral  consider- 
ations overcame  his  scruples. 

Parker  was  elected  in  August,  and  on  the  9th  of 
September  an  order  for  his  consecration  was  given  un- 
der the  great  seal.  Tonstal,  Boure  and  Poole  were  in- 
vited to  consecrate  him,  but  they  refused  to  act.  Bar- 
low, late  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  ;  Scory,  late  Bishop 
of  Chichester ;  Coverdale,  late  of  Exeter,  and  Hodg- 
kins,  expressed  their  willingness  to  consecrate.  On 
December  9th  the  election  of  Parker  was  confirmed, 
and  in  the  chapel  of  Lambeth  Palace  he  was  dulyt:on- 
secrated  according  to  the  ordinal  of  King  Edward's 
second  book,  which,  having  been  incorporated  with 
the  prayer-book,  was  now  legalized  by  the  recent  act  of 
uniformity. 

"Of  this  consecration,"  says  Canon  Perry,  "there 
remains  a  minute  and  detailed  account  in  the  register 
of  Lambeth  and  in  the  registers  of  the  court  of  Can- 
terbury ;  in  many  documents  in  the  rolls ;  in  contem- 
porary  letters;    in    papers   preserved   at    Zurich,    not 


382       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

known  in  England  until  1685,  and  Parker's  own  book, 
printed  in  1572.  No  historical  fact,  says  the  same  au- 
thority, can  be  supported  with  evidence  more  over- 
whelming. 

These  details  are  given  because  a  story  called  ' '  The 
Nag's  Head  Fable,"  invented  forty  years  after  by 
Romanists,  who  wished  to  make  it  appear  that  Parker 
had  not  received  proper  consecration,  and  to  disparage 
the  apostolic  succession,  which  is  claimed  by  the  bishops 
of  the  Church  of  England.  The  new  archbishop,  with 
the  assistance  of  other  bishops,  consecrated  five  other 
bishops.  One  of  these  was  Jewel,  who  wrote  the  first 
of  a  series  of  works,  that  became  afterwards  so  famous 
in  English  theology.  This  man  had  been  marked  for 
destruction  in  Mary's  reign,  but  saved  his  life  by  sub- 
scribing a  formula,  presented  to  him  by  his  enemies. 
Ashamed  of  his  weakness,  he  left  England  and  took 
up  his  abode  in  Zurich  with  a  distinguished  reformer. 
His  great  talents  as  a  preacher,  soon  after  his  return 
from  his  exile,  marked  him  out  for  preferment.  Before 
his  consecration  as  Bishop  of  Salisbury  he  had  gained 
distinction  in  a  controversy  with  Romanists.  This 
controversy  led  to  his  writing  in  Latin  a  celebrated 
work,  "The  Apology  for  the  Church  of  England." 
This  work  was  translated  into  English  by  Lady  Bacon, 
the  wife  of  the  Lord  Keeper,  and  afterwards  into  the 
several  languages  of  Europe. 

Jewel  was  inclined  from  his  tastes  and  antecedents 
to  the  extreme  school  of  the  reformers,  but  he  exer- 
cised wise  moderation  in  the  administration  of  his  dio- 
cese. He  has  received  much  praise  for' the  discrimina- 
tion he  evinced  in  his  encouragement  of  Richard 
Hooker,   the    author  of  "Ecclesiastical    Polity."     He 


ANNAIlS    OF    THE   CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  383 

procured  Hooker's  admission  to  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  and  settled  a  pension  on  him. 

After  Jewel's  death  this  great  man  was  befriended 
by  Dr.  Sandys,  Archbishop  of  York.  Having  neither 
"  family  nor  fortune,"  Hooker,  in  these  disjointed  times, 
required  friends  to  introduce  him  to  a  career,  which  he 
afterwards  pursued  with  so  much  honor  to  himself  and 
with  such  great  advantage  to  others.  It  is  no  small 
Christian  virtue  for  men  to  use  their  opportunities  in 
the  advancement  of  the  poor  and  meritorious,  as  did 
Jewel  and  Sandys.  Hooker  was  born  of  poor  parents 
in  1554,  near  Exeter.  He  took  orders  in  1581. 
In  1585  he  was  made  master  of  the  temple.  Here 
he  became  involved  in  a  controversy  with  Walter 
Travers.  The  controversy  was  carried  on  in  their  ser- 
mons, so  that  it  was  said  that  in  the  morning  Canter- 
bury spoke,  and  in  the  afternoon  Geneva. 

It  is  said  that  Hooker's  distaste  for  disputation 
drove  him  from  London  to  a  Wiltshire  vicarage,  which 
he  exchanged  at  a  later  time  for  the  parsonage  of 
Bishopsbourne,  among  the  quiet  meadows  of  Kent. 
Parker,  the  first  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  under 
Elizabeth,  was  buried  in  Lambeth  Church,  June  6, 
1575.  Moderate  in  his  views,  but  firmly  opposed  to 
Romanism  and  Puritanism,  he  desired  to  enforce  the 
laws,  not  because  ' '  he  cared  for  cap,  tippet,  surplice, 
wafer,  bread,  or  such,"  but  for  the  laws  established. 
He  was  specially  valuable  to  the  church  as  an  organ- 
izer. He  was  resolute  to  restore  order  in  the  worship 
and  discipline  of  the  church.  The  whole  machinery  of 
publication  had  been  thrown  out  of  gear  by  the  rapid 
and  radical  changes  of  the  last  two  reigns.      A   large 


384  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

number  of  the  priests  in  the  North  were  still  Roman 
Catholic  at  heart. 

The  first  difficulty  with  which  Parker  and  the  new 
bishops  had  to  contend  was  with  the  queen  herself. 
Elizabeth  was  unwilling  to  give  up  the  crucifix  and 
lights  in  her  chapel.  The  bishops  were  compelled  to 
minister,  much  to  their  annoyance,  at  the  altar  thus 
ornamented. 

Jewel  writes  to  Ballinger:  "It  comes  to  this,  that 
either  the  crosses  or  roods  must  be  restored,  or  our 
bishoprics  relinquished."  At  length  a  compromise 
was  effected  with  the  queen.  Sandys  writes  that  the 
queen  had  agreed  that  the  images  should  not  be  re- 
stored, but  the  popish  vestments,  I  mean  the  copes,^  are 
still  to  remain,  which,  however,  we  hope  will  not  last 
long. 

It  is  probable  that  the  queen  was  influenced  in  this 
matter,  says  her  biographer,  not  so  much  by  religious 
as  by  political  considerations.  There  was  a  great  want, 
too,  of  competent  ministers  to  preach  the  word  of  God. 
In  order  to  supply  this  want,  the  bishops  consented  to 
admit  illiterate  men  to  orders.  This,  however,  proved 
to  be  an  unwise  expedient,  and  we  find  Parker  writing 
to  Grindal,  then  Bishop  of  London,  not  to  ordain  or 
admit  any  to  orders  who  had  not  some  suitable  educa- 
tion. 

Another  formidable  difficulty  met  the  bishops  in 
the  resolution  of  the  queen  to  grasp  with  unblushing 
rapacity  the  revenues  of  the  church.  The  archbishop 
and  four  other  bishops  elect,  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
queen  appealing  to  her  to  stop  her  proceedings.  The 
property,  Elizabeth  contrasts  unfavorably  with  her  sis- 


*A  rich  habit  covering  the  person,  with  a  cape  or  hood. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  385 

queen  would  not  consent  to  relax  her  grasp  of  episco- 
pal manors,  but  she  remitted  to  the  bishops  half  of  the 
fast  fruits,  payable  to  the  crown.  In  regard  to  church 
ter  Mary.  The  primate  and  certain  of  the  bishops, 
being  ecclesiastical  commissioners,  determined  to  draw 
up  a  paper  for  the  guidance  of  the  clergy,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  prepare  a  sliort  confession  of  faith,  which 
all  clergy  appointed  to  livings  might  be  required  to 
sign.  The  document  they  now  issued  was  styled  "in- 
terpretations and  further  considerations."  These  con- 
siderations related  to  suitable  apparel  for  the  bishops 
and  other  clergy  while  engaged  in  the  ministrations  of 
the  church.  Only  one  apparel  should  be  used  in  the 
church,  as  the  cope  in  the  administration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  the  surplice  in  all  other  ministrations. 
The  principal  articles  of  religion  drawn  up  were  as  fol- 
lows :  The  first  asserts  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 
The  second,  the  sufficiency  of  Scripture  and  the  three 
creeds,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  Nicene  Creed,  and 
the  Athanasian  Creed.*  Third,  the  power  of  the 
Church  to  change  ceremonies  and  rites.  Fourth,  the 
necessities  of  appointment  to  the  ministry  by  the 
"high  authorities."  Fifth,  asserts  the  supremacy  as 
"  expounded  and  declared  "  by  the  injunctions.  Sixth, 
that  the  Bishop  of  Rome  has  no  more  authority  than 
other  bishops.  Seventh,  that  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  is  Catholic,  apostolic,  and  most  fit  for  the  ad- 
vancing of  God's  glory,  and  the  edifying  of  God's 
people.      Eighth,   that  though  the  old  ceremonies  be 


*  Efforts  have  been  made  at  different  times  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land to  get  rid  of  the  last-mentioned  creed.  It  is,  however,  we  be- 
lieve, a  dead  letter.  This  creed  was  not  written  by  Athanasius.  The 
name  is  spurious. 


386       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

omitted  in  baptism,  yet  that  it  is  validly  performed  in 
the  Church  of  England.  Ninth,  that  private  masses, 
and  the  doctrine  that  the  mass  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice 
are  to  be  condemned.  Tenth,  the  holy  communion 
ought  to  be  received  in  both  kinds.  Lastly,  that  im- 
ages are  vain  things,  and  God  must  be  served  by  works 
of  obedience,  faith,  and  charity. 

Archbishop  Parker  turned  his  attention  to  the  re- 
vision of  the  Bible.  Some  of  the  reformers  in  their 
exile  at  Geneva,  had  occupied  themselves  in  this  holy 
work.  The  Genevan  Bible,  with  notes,  had  appeared 
about  1560.  The  "injunctions"  ordered,  as  those  of 
Edward  had  done,  a  copy  of  the  "  Great  Bible  "  to  be 
set  up  in  all  the  churches.  But  the  translation  of  the 
"  Great  Bible"  was  by  no  means  perfect.  The  Gene- 
van Bible  was  not  fully  approved.  The  archbishop,  there- 
fore, determined  to  have  all  the  authorized  versions  re- 
vised by  learned  divines.  This  revision  was  completed  in 
1568,  and  as  the  majority  of  the  revisers  were  bishops 
it  was  called  the  Bishops'  Bible.  The  ecclesiastical 
courts  greatly  needed  reformation.  They  had  become 
a  legalized  tyranny.  But  in  Elizabeth's  reign  the 
needed  reformation  was  not  made. 

On  the  accession  of  James  I.,  a  millenary  petition 
was  presented  to  him,  signed  by  a  tenth  of  all  the 
clergymen  in  his  kingdom,  praying  that  the  church 
courts  should  be  reformed.  This  petition  asked  for  no 
change  in  the  organization  of  the  church,  but  for  a 
thorough  reform  in  the  courts.  "Why  should,"  says 
Bacon,  "the  civil  state  be  purged  as  time  breedeth 
mischief,  and  the  ecclesiastical  state  continue  upon  the 
dregs  of  time  and  receive  no  alteration  tJiesc  many 
years  ?  ' ' 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       387 

When  the  Queen  made  a  progress,  in  1561,  in  the 
eastern  counties  of  her  kingdom,  she  was  greatly  in- 
censed to  see  the  irregularities  in  the  public  worship. 
The  queen  was  disposed  to  attribute  the  seeming  in- 
difference of  the  clergy  and  their  carelessness  in  the 
administration  of  the  rites  of  the  church  to  clerical 
matrimony.  In  her  displeasure  she  was  disposed  to 
issue  a  proclamation  forbidding  the  marriage  of  her 
clergy.  Cecil  used  his  influence  to  prevent  so  unbe- 
coming a  step  on  the  part  of  the  queen.  Some  of  the 
bishops  were  indignant  and  expressed  horror  at  the 
language  of  the  queen,  with  regard  to  God's  holy  or- 
dinance of  matrimony.  That  there  was  some  disorder 
in  the  churches  at  this  time  during  the  hours  of  public 
worship,  appears  from  the  following  statement: 

"Some  say  their  prayers  in  the  chancel,  some  in 
the  body  of  the  church ;  some  attend  to  the  order  of 
the  book,  others  intermeddle  psalms  in  metre  ; 
some  minister  in  a  surplice,  others  without  a  surplice. 
In  some  churches  the  table  standeth  in  the  chancel ; 
sometimes  persons  receive  the  Lord's  Supper  kneeling, 
others  standing  or  sitting.  This  disorder  was  distaste- 
ful to  the  queen.  The  love  of  order  and  ceremonial, 
say  the  writers  of  that  day,  was  her  strongest  religious 
sentiment. 

Queen  Elizabeth  had,  perhaps,  but  little  personal 
piety,  but  her  love  of  a  gorgeous  ceremonial  was  no 
proof  of  the  want  of  it.  She  was  not  a  persecutor. 
A  late  historian,  Mr.  Green,  says  she  was  a  persecutor, 
but  she  was  the  first  English  ruler  who  felt  the  charge 
of  persecution  to  be  2i  stigma.  Her  ministers  boldly  as- 
serted the  right  of  every  religious  subject  to  freedom. 
It  is  true  that  Walsingham,  her  minister,  pursued  the 


388  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Douay  priests.  Those  Jesuits  came  to  England,  the 
people  thought,  to  sow  treason  and  revolt.  Those 
who  were  put  to  death  died  as  traitors,  not  as  religion- 
ists. 

Thousands  of  Flemish  exiles  and  French  Hugue- 
nots found  homes  in  England.  Statements  of  doc- 
trine were  distasteful  to  Elizabeth.  She  would  not 
ratify  the  articles  until  she  made  a  change  in  them. 
She  kept  the  homilies  a  long  time  under  consideration. 
In  her  youth  she  had  been  strictly  subjected  to  Roman- 
ist surveillance,  and  was  assailed  afterwards  with  so 
many  differing  creeds  that  we  are  not  surprised  at  her 
impatience  in  listening  to  doctrinal  disputations. 
When  she  was  made  queen  she  reverently  kissed  the 
Bible,  pronouncing  that  they  (the  evangelists)  should  be 
no  longer  prisoners.  She  blamed  the  bishops  for  the 
prevalent  disorders  in  the  church,  yet  she  would  not 
permit  them  to  enforce  subscription  to  the  articles  by 
statute.  She  desired  to  govern  the  church  by  her  pre- 
rogative and  by  the  ecclesiastical  commission,  and  not 
by  statute  law. 

It  was  the  policy  of  Leicester  and  other  anti-church 
counsellors  who  surrounded  her,  to  stir  up  the  Puritans 
to  resistance,  and  on  the  other  hand  to  represent  that 
all  the  non-conformity  in  the  land  was  due  to  the 
bishops'  want  of  discipline. 

Parker  had  made  an  effort,  in  1565,  to  reduce  the 
London  clergy  to  conformity.  At  that  time  140  ap- 
peared before  him  at  Lambeth,  of  whom  all  but  thirty 
promised  conformity.  In  1566  they  were  again  called 
to  Lambeth.  On  this  occasion  sixty-one  promised 
obedience ;  thirty-seven  refused.  The  recusants  were 
now  suspended  or  deprived.     The  archbishop   had  now 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  389 

commenced  the  policy  of  coercion.  He  did  it  with  a 
foreboding  that  it  would  not  succeed.  Among  the 
deprived  ministers  themselves  there  was  some  anxious 
deliberation.  Were  they  to  decline  to  separate  from  a 
church  in  which  the  word  and  sacraments  were  truly 
administered,  though  defiled  with  superstition  ?  or  were 
they,  inasmuch  as  they  could  not  have  the  word  of 
God  preached,  or  the  sacraments  administered  without 
idolatrous  gear,  to  break  off  from  the  public  churches, 
and  assemble  elsewhere  to  worship  God  in  a  manner 
which  would  not  offend  the  light  of  their  consciences  ? 
There  was  a  division  among  them.  Some  of  the 
most  able  objectors  continued  in  communion  with  the 
church  ;  another  section  broke  off  entirely  from  the 
church  and  established  a  discipline  and  worship  of 
their  own. 

This  was  the  first  formal  act  of  schism  in  the  Church 
of  England.  No  charge  of  false  doctrine  was  made. 
It  was  simply  the  vestments  to  which  they  objected. 
The  name  of  Puritan  was  first  applied  to  those  men 
who  left  the  church  on  account  of  "the  idolatrous 
gear,"  *  as  they  termed  it.  Truly  it  may  be  said  that 
religion  has  received,  in  all  ages,  the  severest  wounds 
in  the  house  of  her  friends.  All  who  read  church  his- 
tory must  acknowledge  this  humiliating  truth. 

Archbishop  Parker  was  succeeded  in  the  primacy 
by  Edmund  Grindal.  Grindal  had  been  one  of  the 
Marian  exiles.  In  1549  he  had  been  president  of 
Pembroke    Hall,  Cambridge,    having    become    distin- 


*  Throughout  the  earlier  years  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  vestments 
of  which  there  is  such  frequent  mention  in  "the  Zurich  letters,"  were 
only  the  cope  and  surplice.  Copes  were  used  chiefly  in  the  cathedral 
churches. 


390       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST, 

guished  as  a  preacher.  He  was  appointed,  in  1550,  a 
chaplain  of  Ridley,  bishop  of  London.  In  155 1  he 
became  the  chaplain  of  Edward  VI.,  but  on  Mary's 
accession  he  fled  to  Strasburg,  where  he  remained  un- 
til Mary's  death.  As  soon  as  he  returned  to  England 
he  was  employed,  with  seven  other  Protestants,  to  re- 
vise the  liturgy,  and  also  to  oppose  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelates  in  public  debate.  He  succeeded  Bonner 
as  Bishop  of  London,  and  was  afterwards  translated  to 
the  see  of  York. 

Grindal  had  shown  a  becoming  spirit  in  repressing 
disorders  both  in  the  North  and  at  Durham.  Grindal 
was  recommended  to  the  queen  by  Lord  Burleigh,  who 
-believed  that  the  exercise  of  his  gentle  and  amiable 
disposition  would  be  more  effectual  in  quelling  disturb- 
ance than  arbitrary  moroseness.  A  quiet  term  of 
office  could  not  he  anticipated,  as  non-conformists  and 
puritanicaV con/()nmsts  were  making  attacks  upon  the 
Church  of  England,  as  it  had  been  settled  in  the  early 
days  of  Elizabeth  and  Archbishop  Parker.  Grindal 
says  he  had  many  conflicts  with  himself  in  accepting 
the  great  responsibility.  "  He  did  so  lest,  resisting  his 
vocation,  he  might,  with  Jonas,  offend  God,  and  occa- 
sion a  tempest." 

"Our  affairs,  says  Grindal,  "after  the  settlement  ot 
the  ceremonies,  were  for  some  time  very  quiet  when 
some  virulent  pamphlets  came  forth  in  which  almost 
the  whole  external  polity  of  our  church  was  attacked. 
The  writers  of  these  papers  maintain  that  the  archbish- 
ops and  bishops  should  be  reduced  to  the  ranks ;  that 
the  ministers  of  the  church  ought  to  be  solely  elected 
by  the  people ;  that  in  every  city,  town  and  parish  a 
consistory  should  be  established,  consisting  of  the  min- 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       39 1 

ister  and  elders  of  the  place,  who  alone  are  to  decide 
on  allecclesiastical  affairs." 

The  persons  who  held  these  sentiments  were  the 
forerunners  of  the  Independents,  who  increased  so  greatly 
during  the  reigns  of  the  arbitrary  James  I.  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Charles  I.,  that  in  the  era  of  the  Commonwealth 
they  became  the  governing  party.  We  have  seen  that 
the  epithet  Puritan  was  first  applied  to  the  frivolous  ob- 
jectors to  the  vestments  worn  by  the  Episcopal  clergy. 
The  term  Puritan  was  afterwards  applied  to  all  who  re- 
fused to  conform  to  the  Church  of  the  State.  Some 
who  did  fully  conform  to  the  establishment,  but  who 
attached  more  importance  to  the  essentials  of  religion, 
humility,  justice,  mercy,  and  truth,  than  to  its  outward 
symbols  and  ceremonies,  were  often  called  Puritans  by 
the  worldly  and  evil-minded. 

In  the  summer  of  the  year  1570,  Archbishop  Grin- 
dal  made  a  metropolitan  visitation.  He  soon  found 
that  the  great  want  of  the  church  was  earnest,  efficient 
preachers.  Grindal  testifies  to  the  advance  that  had 
been  made  during  the  primacy  of  Parker,  yet  they  had 
been  very  irregularly  distributed.  Grindal,  noble  mis- 
sionary as  he  was,  determined  to  use  his  best  efforts  to 
supply  the  need.  Grindal  encouraged  the  frequent 
meetings  of  his  clergy  for  mutual  improvement. 
These  meetings  were  called  "  prophesy ings, "  and  there 
was  doubtless  an  element  of  usefulness  in  these  ex- 
changes of  sentiment,  helping  the  clergy  to  think  defin- 
itely, and  to  express  themselves  correctly.  They  were 
well  calculated  to  increase  Christian  fellowship.  Many 
of  the  laity  also  attended  these  meetings,  but  after- 
wards it  was  thought  best  to  restrict  them  to  the  clergy. 
The    queen    became    prejudiced    against    them,   either 


392  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

through  misrepresentation  of  those  who  did  not  under- 
stand them,  or  perhaps  through  the  evil  influence  of. 
Leiscester,  who  was  very  inimical  to  the  Church. 
These  "  prophesyings "  commenced  about  the  year 
1 57 1.  They  became  very  popular.  In  1574  the  Bishop 
of  Lincoln  issued  directions  to  the  clergy  as  to  their 
direction,  recommending  that  not  only  doctrines  were 
to  be  discussed,  but  practical  religious  duties  were  to 
be  indicated  and  commented  upon.  The  new  Arch- 
bishop of  the  Canterbury  Convocation  laid  before  the 
synod  a  body  of  articles  relating  to  the  qualifications 
of  the  candidates  for  the  ministry  or  clerical  office. 
Grindal  was  anxious  in  these  articles  to  meet  and  over- 
come puritanical  objections,  so  far  as  it  was  expedient. 
When  these  articles  were  submitted  to  the  queen  she 
struck  off  two  of  them — one  that  allowed  marriage  to 
be  celebrated  at  any  convenient  time  without  regard  to 
Lent ;  and  another  which  declared  that  baptism  could 
only  fitly  be  performed  by  a  lawful  minister.  The 
queen  wished  to  make  them  remember  that  she  had  the 
power  to  strike  out  that  which  was  offensive  to  her, 
though  she  had  withdrawn  the  title  of  "Head  of  the 
Church." 

These  canons  or  articles  said  that  "  unlearned  min- 
isters "  must  not  be  promoted  in  the  Church.*  When 
these  "exercises"  or  prophesyings  had  extended  to 
Norwich,  the  headquarters  of  non-conformity,  the 
queen  became  impatient ;  she  severely  reproved  Grin- 
dal for  licensing  so  many  preachers.  She  also  com- 
manded him  at  once  to  put  a  stop  to  the  "prophesy- 
ings. "  The  Archbishop  was  grieved  at  this  peremptory 
and  imperious  mandate.      As  soon   as  he  deliberated 

*  Canon  Perry'.s  History  of  the  Church. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  393 

upon  this  matter,  that  he  thought  so  important,  he  de- 
termined to  write  to  her  majesty  a  letter  of  remon- 
monstrance.  In  this  letter  he  reminds  her  of  the  great 
duty  and  value  of  preaching.  He  tells  her  that  ten 
of  his  suffragans  greatly  esteemed  the  religious  exer- 
cises in  which  they  had  been  engaged.  He  laments 
the  spoliation  the  church  had  suffered,  which  had  been 
the  cause  that  every  parish  could  not  now  have  a  pas- 
tor. Hence  the  origin  of  these  associations  in  parishes 
without  pastoral  care.  "I  can  not,"  he  says,  "with 
safe  conscience,  and  without  the  offense  of  the  majesty 
of  God,  give  my  consent  to  the  suppressing  of  these 
'  prophesyings. '  I  choose  rather  to  offend  your  earthly 
majesty  than  the  heavenly  majesty  of  God.  In  God's 
matters  all  princes  ought  to  bow  their  sceptres  to  the 
Son  of  God,  and  to  ask  counsel  at  His  mouth  what 
they  ought  to  do. 

' '  Remember,  madam,  that  you  are  a  mortal  creature. 
Must  not  you  also  one  day  appear  before  the  judgment 
seat  of  the  Crucified,  to  receive  there  what  ye  have 
done  in  the  body,  whether  good  or  evil  ?  And  al- 
though ye  are  a  mighty  prince,  yet  remember  that  He 
which  dwelleth  in  heaven  is  mightier." 

The  boldness  and  independence  of  this  opposition 
is  specially  to  be  admired  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  how 
much  Erastian  principles  prevailed  at  this  era,  that  is, 
an  idea  that  ecclesiastical  authority  is  subordinate  to  the 
civil  power.  The  queen's  answer  to  the  noble  letter  of 
Grindal  was  to  order  a  meeting  of  the  Star  Chamber 
to  propose  that  the  Archbishop  should  be  deprived. 
She  was  prevailed  upon,  however,  to  consent  to  a 
milder  sentence.  The  Archbishop  was  suspended  and 
confined    to    his    own    house.      Another   peremptory 


394  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

epistle  was  then  sent  to  all  the  Bishops,  warning  them 
to  desist  from  these  "  prophesyings."  Most  of  the 
Bishops  liked  these  meetings,  but  they  did  not  evince 
the  boldness  of  their  chief. 

*  Bishop  Cox  writes  to  Burleigh:  "I  trust  that  her 
majesty,  when  she  examines  into  this  matter,  if  she 
seeks  the  glory  of  God  and  the  edifying  of  the  people ; 
when  she  sees  the  ignorance  and  idleness  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  poor  blind  priests,  she  may  deem  it  necessary  to 
drive  them  or  encourage  them  to  some  travail  and  ex- 
ercise of  God's  holy  word,  whereby  they  may  be  bet- 
ter able  to  discharge  their  bounden  duty  to  their 
flock." 

The  suspension  of  the  Archbishop  did  not  incapaci- 
tate him  from  the  performance  of  much  episcopal  duty. 
He  was  unable  to  act  as  president  of  the  Convocation. 
His  compeers  earnestly  besought  the  queen  fully  to 
restore  him. 

In  the  meeting  of  the  Convocation  in  1580,  the 
clergy  were  directed  to  look  into  the  subject  of  excom- 
munication. Much  irritation  had  been  produced  among 
the  laity  by  the  conduct  of  lay  judges,  who  had  caused 
the  penalty  of  excommunication  to  be  inflicted  for  very 
inadequate  causes. 

A  paper  was  drawn  up  by  Grindal  insisting  that  ex- 
communication should  be  taken  away  except  for  great 
crimes,  then  the  sentence  was  to  be  pronounced  by  the 
bishop.  His  views  were  not  fully  carried  out  at  this 
time  on  this  delicate  subject. 

In  January,  1583,  the  queen  sent  to  Grindal  to  pre- 
pare his  resignation.  He  professed  himself  ready  to 
resign,  but  before  his  arrangements  were  made  for  the 

♦Canon  Perry's  Book  of  the  Church. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF   CHRIST.  395 

resignation  of  the  see  death  released  him  from  its  cares. 
In  1586  we  learn  that  the  Bishop  of  Chester  issued 
directions  as  to  "  prophesyings. "  In  his  letter  he  says, 
"  Her  majesty's  privy  council  have  recommended  their 
use  and  extension." 


396  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XLI. 

Whitgift  became  archbishop  of  Canterbury  on  the 
death  of  Grindal ;  he  was  bishop  of  Worcester  when 
called  on  to  take  the  primacy.  The  withdrawal  of 
Grindal  from  active  work  seems  to  have  encouraged 
the  Nonconformists  in  a  bolder  expression  of  their 
views.  Whitgift  was  full  of  energy  and  decision. 
There  were  at  least  three  formidable  sects  of  Noncon- 
formists when  Whitgift  commenced  the  administration 
of  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

The  Brownists  were  the  most  considerable  sect. 
Their  leader,  Robert  Brown,  had  left  the  Church  of 
England  on  account  of  its  "vain  ceremonies."  Whit- 
gift's  first  step  was  to  present  the  test  of  the  "Three 
Articles  "  to  many  of  the  preachers  who  pretended  to 
conform,  and  yet  disregarded  the  Prayer  Book  —  the 
Queen's  supremacy,  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and 
the  Articles  of  Religion  (the  Thirty-nine  Articles). 
Whitgift  presented  no  new  test,  but  he  presented  very 
frequently  the  old  tests  for  subscription.  He  prepared 
for  much  opposition^  as  he  knew  he  would  have  great 
trouble  in  enforcing  conformity.  Therefore,  in  1583, 
the  great  seal  was  affixed  to  a  new  ecclesiastical  com- 
mission, with  fuller  powers  than  any  before  issued. 
The  queen  supported  Whitgift  in  this  tyrannical  pro- 
cedure, considering  that  the  recusants  could  only  be 
silenced  by  this  weapon,  which  they  vainly  thought 
might  be  effective. 

Whitgift  drew  up  twenty-four  articles  for  the  use  of 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  397 

the  ecclesiastical  commission,  that  were  so  stringent  as 
to  bring  upon  him  the  displeasure  of  many  of  his 
former  friends.  He  insisted  that  the  critical  state  of 
the  Church  required  such  proceedings.  Lord  Burleigh 
wrote  to  him  on  the  subject  in  much  displeasure.  He 
tells  him  that  "the  Inquisition  in  Spain  use  not  so 
many  questions  to  entrap  their  prey."  The  queen  her- 
self was  appealed  to  in  favor  of  the  nonconforming 
ministers.  She  desired  the  archbishop  to  answer  the 
objections  made  against  his  proceedings. 

Whitgift    was    constrained,    by   the    opposition    he 
received,  to  allow  conferences  to  be  held  at  Lambeth  * 
between  the  Church  divines  and  the  Puritans,  in  the 
presence  of  Lord  Leicester  and  the  other  ministers  of 
the  court. 

We  can  see  very  clearly,  in  the  light  of  the  nine-" 
teenth  century,  the  weakness  and  ineffective  tyranny  of 
Whitgift's  policy  ;  but  it  was  not  so  apparent  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  Yet  Burleigh  seemed  to  understand 
that  "  the  spirit  of  gentleness  would  be  more  winning 
than  severity. "  Some  men,  either  in|political  or  religious 
crises,  seem  incapable  of  conciliation.  Whitgift  and 
Laud,  though  possessing  some  qualities  that  adorn  a 
man,  belonged  to  the  class  of  uncompromising  zealots. 
These  men  belonged  to  different  schools  in  theology, 
yet  they  were  both  equally  devoted  to  non-essentials. 
Whitgift  was  a  Calvinist,  and  Laud  an  Arminian. 

The  parliament  of  1593  made  a  law  that  those  who 
refused  to  conform,  by  non-attendance  on  the  service 
of  God,  should  be  banished  or  imprisoned  within  three 
months.  In  this  way  the  country  was  cleared  of  many 
of  the  sectaries,  who  preferred  exile  to  imprisonment. 
The  greater  number  of  the  disaffected  emigrated  with 
their  ministers  to  Holland. 


39^  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

We  have  spoken  of  conferences  at  Lambeth.  The 
chief  topics  at  these  debates  were  the  reading  of  the 
apocrypha,  the  use  of  private  baptism  by  laymen,  the 
use  of  the  cross,  private  communion,  the  clerical  dress. 
Let  us  look  at  these  unimportant  questions  with  charity ; 
they  were  doubtless  perplexing  to  weak  but  conscien- 
tious minds  at  that  time.  It  is  a  mortifying  concession 
to  make,  that  Whitgift  and  others  seemed  to  plead  for 
the  "institutions  of  the  Church"  on  Erastian  princi- 
ples. They  were  called  Erastian  from  a  learned  physi- 
cian of  Switzerland.  Erastus  thought  it  the  best 
policy,  in  view  of  the  claims  of  the  Pope,  and  the 
extravagant  claims,  too,  of  some  of  the  heads  of  the 
Reformed  Churches,  as  a  Protestant,  to  resolve  all  the 
powers  exercised  by  Church  governors  into  the  will  of 
the  State. 

On  three  occasions  our  Lord  declares  His  kingdom 
upon  earth  is  spiritual,  not  civil  —  Matt.  xx.  25,  26; 
Luke  xii.  13  ;  John  xviii.  36,  37. 

The  men  who  conferred  at  Lambeth  believed  that 
their  Church  in  important  points  was  in  accordance  with 
the  Bible,  and  with  the  primitive  Church.  Yet  they 
said  (Erastians)  it  was  within  the  power  of  the  sove- 
reign to  appoint  Church  government. 

It  is  true  that  many  valuable  concessions  were  gained 
for  the  Church  by  ecclesiastics  who  gained  influence 
over  the  sovereign.  Cranmer  and  other  good  men 
availed  themselves  of  the  circumstances  of  the  dis- 
jointed times  of  Henry  VIII.  and  his  successor  to  gain 
religious  ends.  Was  this  time-serving  ?  If  they  did 
acquiesce  in  questionable  measures,  it  was  not  for 
personal  emolument  ;  it  was  that  they  might  gain 
benefits  for  the  Church  they  loved  so  well,  that  they 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  399 

sought  conciliation  rather  than  debate.  The  claim  of  a 
king  to  be  the  head  of  a  Church  in  the  /till  sense  is  more 
revolting  than  the  claim  of  Bishop  or  Pope.  "  My 
kingdom  is  not  of  this  world,"  said  our  Lord. 

But  the  men  of  whom  we  have  been  speaking  did 
not  bask  in  the  calm  sunshine  of  political  favor.  They 
were  required  to  act,  to  reform  systems  amid  storms  of 
political  and  ecclesiastical  strife. 

During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  there  were  many 
controversies  on  the  respective  merits  of  Episcopacy 
and  Presbyterianism.  Whitgift,  the  archbishop,  and 
Cartwright,  a  university  professor,  had  a  famous  con- 
troversy on  this  subject.  Whitgift  did  not  prove  him- 
self to  be  very  learned  in  theology.  Cartwright  de- 
fended with  ability  the  Presbyterian  basis  as  the  most 
scriptural. 

Dr.  Bancroft  preached,  in  February,  1589,  a  sermon 
that  challenged  much  interest  and  attention.  He 
asserted  that  there  was  no  scriptural  basis  whatever  for 
the  Presbyterian  mode  of  ordination,  but  claimed  it  for 
Episcopacy.  There  was  never  ancient  father,  nor 
church,  nor  synod,  he  said,  from  the  apostles'  time  to 
the  present,  that  ever  dreamed  of  a  Presbyterian  basis, 
Sararia  also,  a  learned  divine  from  Holland,  held- the 
same  views.  In  a  controversy  that  he  held  with  Beza 
he  said  that  the  apostles  did  not  appoint  anything  that 
they  had  not  received  from  the  Lord  ;  but  they  did 
appoint  bishops  (such  as  were  Timothy  and  Titus) 
wherever  there  was  need. 

This  earnest  introduction  of  the  question  of  Church 
government  upon  such  exclusive  grounds  alarmed  the 
fears  of  many  churchmen  of  this  time,  lest  in  adopting 
such  views  they  should  unchurch  the  foreign  reformed 


400  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST, 

communities,  for  whose  piety  and  learning  they  had 
great  respect.  Such  feehngs  greatly  modified  the 
opinions  of  many,  in  embracing  what  the  Episcopal 
controversialists  called  the  truth  of  history.  The 
moderate  or  Low  Church  party  contented  themselves 
in  thinking  that  Presbyterian  ordination  was  irregular, 
but  they  would  not  presume  to  say  it  was  invalid. 

We  will  now  quote  on  this  vexed  subject  the 
opinion  of  Hooker,  the  author  of  "  Ecclesiastical 
Polity."  He  is  the  great  standard  authority  of  the 
Church  of  England.  Hooker  occupies  a  middle  ground 
between  differing  schools  of  theology.  He  says  bishops 
have  indeed  a  Divine  sanction,  but  are  not  indispen- 
sably necessary  to  a  Church.  Church  government, 
according  to  him,  is  a  thing  which  the  Church  consti- 
tutes under  a  Divine  authority.  The  Church  has,  in 
accordance  with  this  Divine  power,  constituted  the 
regimen  of  bishops ;  but  the  Church  might,  if  it 
pleased,  under  certain  circumstances,  dispense  with 
this  order,  and  arrange  otherwise.  Whether  or  not  the 
justifying  circumstances  had  arisen  in  the  case  of  the 
foreign  churches.  Hooker  does  not  say.  "  We  must 
note,"  he  says,  "that  he  that  affirmeth  speech  to  be 
necessary  to  all  men,  doth  not  necessarily  import  that 
all  men  must  speak  of  necessity  one  kind  of  language. 
Unto  the  complete  form  of  Church  polity  much  maybe 
necessary  that  the  Scripture  teacheth  not,  and  much 
that  it  hath  taught  become  unrequisite,  sometime  be- 
cause we  need  not  use  it,  and  sometime  because  we 
can  not.  I  see  that  certain  reformed  churches,  the 
Scottish  especially,  and  the  French,  have  not  that 
which  best  agreeth  with  sacred  Scripture ;  I  mean  the 
government  that  is  by  bishops,  inasmuch  as  both  these 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  4OI 

churches  have  fallen  under  a  different  kind  of  regimen. 
I  had  rather  lament  than  excogitate,  considering  that 
men  often,  without  any  blame  of  their  own,  may  be 
driven  to  want  that  kind  of  polity  which  is  best,  and  to 
content  themselves  with  that  which  the  irremediable 
error  of  former  times,  or  the  necessity  of  the  present, 
hath  cast  upon  them.  Bishops,  though  many  avouch 
with  conformity  of  truth  that  their  authority  hath  thus 
descended,  even  from  the  very  apostles  themselves,  yet 
the  everlasting  and  absolute  continuance  of  it,  they  can 
not  say  that  any  commandment  of  the  Lord  doth 
enjoin,  and,  therefore,  must  acknowledge  that  the 
Church  hath  power  by  universal  consent,  upon  urgent 
cause,  to  take  it  away — if  thereunto  she  be  constrained 
through  the  proud,  the  tyrannical  and  unreformable 
dealings  of  her  bishops,  whose  regimen  she  hath  long 
delighted  in,  because  she  hath  found  it  good  and 
requisite  to  be  so  governed." 

Hooker  allows  to  Episcopacy  scriptural  sanction, 
yet  does  not  assert  its  divine  right.  He  leaves  it  to  the 
conscience  to  determine,  or  to  the  reason  of  man, 
whether  Church  polity  is  a  mutable  thing,  under  the 
control  of  circumstances. 

The  Lutherans  in  Germany,  and  the  Calvinists  of 
France,  Holland,  and  Scotland,  made  up  their  minds 
that  they  could  do  without  bishops.  There  was  sad 
warfare  through  the  center  of  Europe,  and  the  Span- 
iards and  French  persecuted  the  Protestants,  some  of 
them  thinking  in  their  blindness  that  they  were  doing 
God  service.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  a  friend  in  need  to 
all  the  distressed  reformers. 

There  were  four  branches  of  the  Reformed  Church 
of   Christ  that   kept   their   bishops  :    the  English  and 


402       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

American  Episcopalians,  the  Swedish  Lutherans,  and 
the  Moravians. 

A  proper  observance  of  the  Lord's  day  became 
now  a  subject  of  interest.  A  book  came  out  on  this 
subject  in  1595,  which  had  the  effect  of  giving  a  pecu- 
liar character  to  the  religious  and  social  life  of  England. 
The  bishops  had  issued  directions  about  Sunday  ob- 
servance, but  they  restricted  their  injunctions  to  buying 
and  selling  on  the  Lord's  day.  They  forbade  all 
games  being  carried  on  during  the  time  of  divine 
service. 

As  early  as  1449  an  act  was  passed  in  England  to 
prohibit  merchandise  on  Sunday.  In  1678  all  secular 
work  was  forbidden,  except  works  of  charity  and 
mercy.  How  precious  are  the  Sabbaths  of  our  lives ! 
Oh,  that  they  could  be  hallowed  to  all  classes  in  the 
community  !  See  in  Isa.  Ivi.  2  and  Iviii.  13  the  prom- 
ises made  to  all  who  hallow  the  sacred  day. 

The  book  to  which  we  have  alluded  was  written  by  a 
Puritan  minister  in  1595.  Fuller  testifies  to  its  remark- 
able effects:  "The  fencer  laid  down  his  buckler,  the 
archer  his  bow.  May-games  and  morris-da"nces  grew 
out  of  repute." 

Although  the  proper  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  or 
a  seventh  part  of  our  time,  is  a  blessed  institution  to  all 
God's  creatures,  yet  some  well-meaning  sectaries  have 
carried  their  views  to  as  absurd  an  extreme  as  did  the 
Jews  in  the  days  of  our  Lord.  The  Sunday  had  been 
shamefully  desecrated  in  the  age  just  previous  to  the 
Reformation.  "  The  rites  of  sacrifice  and  circumcision 
have  vanished  away,  but  the  name  and  duties  of  the 
Sabbath,  en.shrined  as  it  is  in  the  moral  code,  must 
forever  remain." 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  4O3 

The  doctrines  of  predestination  and  election  have 
produced  much  controversy.  Since  the  day  that  the 
question  was  asked  of  our  Lord,  "  Are  there  few  that  be 
saved  ?  "  the  question  of  election  has  agitated  the 
Church  of  God.  St.  Augustine,  in  the  fourth  century, 
sounded  its  deep  mysteries,  but  was  not  quite  able  to 
satisfy  himself.  His  theology,  as  we  have  said,  has 
iufluenced  the  Church  in  every  age.  We  see  it  in  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 

"  Work  out  your  own  salvation  with  fear  and 
trembling,  for  it  is  God  that  worketh  in  us,  to  will  and 
to  do,  of  his  own  good  pleasure."  In  this  passage  of 
Scripture  we  see  declared,  not  only  the  sovereignty  of 
God,  but  the  free  agency  of  man.  On  the  mysterious 
question  of  the  operation  of  grace,  the  English  Church 
was  long  dominated  by  the  opinions  of  Calvin  and  Beza. 

During  the  reign  of  Mary,  the  Protestant  exiles  had 
received  much  kindness  from  the  leaders  of  the  Genev'^an 
and  from  the  Zurich  schools  of  theology.  During  a 
large  part  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  English  divines 
were  strongly  tinctured  with  Calvinism.  Now  and  then 
a  bold  man  would  declare  his  belief  in  free  will,  as 
Bishop  Cheyney  of  Gloucester. 

Mr.  Barrett,  in  a  sermon  which  he  preached  at 
Cambridge,  said  that  sin  was  the  true,  proper  and  first 
cause  of  reprobation.  This  assault  on  Calvinism  was 
distasteful  to  the  most  influential  doctors  at  Cambridge. 
Dr.  Whitaker,  the  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity,  brought 
the  matter  before  the  archbishop.  Whitgift  called  to 
his  aid  several  divines  to  sett/e  the  controversy.  At 
Lambeth  a  paper  of  articles  was  drawn  up,  known  as 
the  "Lambeth  Articles."  There  were  nine  of  these 
articles.     We  will  only  quote  the  first :    ' '  God  from 


404      ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

eternity  hath  predestinated  some  to  life,  some  He  hath 
reprobated  to  death."  If  these  articles  prove  anything, 
they  prove  that  man,  when  he  presumes  to  understand 
the  "secret  decrees"  of  God,  plunges  into  absurdity 
and  blasphemy.  Many  were  shocked  at  this  document, 
denying,  as  they  thought,  the  attribute  of  justice  to  the 
Most  High. 

TheTqueen,  when  she  heard  of  these  articles,  said 
that  "she  misliked  them  very  much,  regretting  that  the 
prelate  had  allowed  such  points  to  be  discussed,  as 
being  matter  tender  and  dangerous  to  weak  minds." 
A  protest  was  soon  made  against  these  articles. 

Baro,  in  a  Latin  sermon  at  Cambridge,  1596,  took 
the  position  that  God  created  all  men  in  the  likeness  of 
Adam,  and  consequently  to  eternal  life  —  as  Christ 
gave  Himself  a  propitiation  for  all.  Baro  was  cited 
before  the  vice-chancellor  to  answer  for  heresy.  The 
primate  wrote  to  the  chancellor  to  proceed  cautiously. 
Burleigh  reproved  the  vice-chancellor  for  his  citation  of 
Baro  :  "  Ye  sift  him  with  interrogatories,  as  if  he  were 
a  thief.  If  you  punish  him,  it  will  be  for  holding  the 
truth."  The  queen  said  these  articles  must  be  sup- 
pressed. 

Andrews,  a  bishop  of  much  ability,  placed  the 
doctrines  of  the  articles  in  their  true  light  before  Whit- 
gift.      Baro  was  permitted  to  keep  his  place. 

Calvin  was  indeed  an  intellectual  giant  and  a  deeply 
religious  man.  His  "Institutes"  prove  that  he  pos- 
sessed great  logical  powers.  He  elaborated  a  system 
of  theology  in  all  its  parts,  on  the  basis  of  the  Divine 
will  as  supreme.*     That  will,  in  Calvin's  view,  though 

*  Calvin  seemed  to  square  and  triangulate  and  systematize  the 
doctrinal  mysteries  of  the  Scripture,  as  a  problem  in  mathematics. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  405 

hidden  to  us,  is  not  arbitrary,  but  most  wise  and  holy. 
The  human  race,  corrupted  radically  in  the  '  fall  of 
Adam,  has  upon  it  the  guilt  and  impotence  of  original 
sin  ;  its  redemption  could  only  be  achieved  through  a 
propitiation  ;  of  this  redemption  only  electing  grace  can 
make  the  soul  a  participant,  and  such  grace  once  given 
is  never  lost.  This  election  can  come  only  from  God, 
and  it  includes  onl>  a  part  of  the  race,  the  rest  being 
left  to  perdition.  Justification  is  by  faith  alone,  and 
this  faith  is  the  gift  of  God. 

All  Christians  embrace  a  large  part  of  Calvin's 
creed ;  but  there  are  two  points  in  his  faith  that  ordi- 
nary minds  can  not  receive.  One  is  that  a  loving 
Father,  as  the  Bible  represents  our  God  to  be,  could 
ever  pass  by  or  reprobate  any  of  the  creatures  He  has 
made.  "Whosoever  will  may  take  of  the  waters  of 
life  freely  "  is  the  doctrine  of  our  Lord,  who  gave 
Himself  a  propitiation  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  The 
other  point  in  Calvin's  theology  that  we  can  not  receive 
is,  that  we  can  "  never  depart  from  grace  given."  We 
know  that  nothing  but  our  sins  can  separate  us  from 
God.  If  we  are  diligent  in  our  Master's  work,  ' '  our 
calling  and  election ''  will  be  sure. 

The  execution  of  Servetus,  the  Socinian  physician, 
was  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  European  states 
of  that  time.  It  was,  say  his  friends,  the  inherited 
spirit  of  the  times.  His  condemnation  was  an  act  of 
the  council,  after  some  deliberation,  and  in  accordance 
with  the  opinions  of  other  cantons.  Calvin,  it  is  said, 
interceded  that  he  might  not  be  burned,  but  decapi- 
tated. If  Calvin  had  possessed  as  much  loi'e  as  he  did 
learning,  we  believe  he  would  have  heartily  interceded 
with  the  council,  to  save  the  life  of  Servetus. 


406  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Religion  without  love  or  charity  is  as  sounding 
brass  or  a  tinkling  cymbal.  Oh,  how  lamentable  is  it 
that  some  of  the  lights  of  the  world  have  almost  gone 
out  in  darkness  on  account  of  the  persecution  unto 
death  of  a  fellow-creature,  not  for  crime,  but  for  error 
in  opinion  ! 

At  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  a 
generation  had  arisen  which  knew  nothing  of  any 
religion  which  differed  greatly  from  the  Church  of 
England.  The  peculiarities  of  this  Church,  the  cere- 
monies and  vestments  which  had  at  an  earlier  period 
been  exposed  to  bitter  attacks,  were  now  connected 
with  hallowed  associations.  The  time,  however,  was 
not  very  far  distant,  when  kings,  by  their  absolutist 
principles,  and  ecclesiastics,  in  magnifying  non-essen- 
tials and  in  the  exercise  of  an  uncompromising  spirit, 
brought  tribulation  and  woe  upon  the  Church  of  God. 

In  1603  James  I.  became  king  of  England.  There 
was  some  doubt  upon  the  minds  of  Englishmen  as  to 
the  religious  opinions  of  James,  coming  as  he  did  from 
Scotland,  and  from  under  the  instruction  of  the  learned 
but  Calvinistic  Buchanan.  He  showed  soon  his  pref- 
erence for  the  Church  of  England,  but,  we  think,  his 
embrace  was  one  of  death  and  dishonor  to  the  Church. 
There  was  a  conference  at  Hampton  Court  which 
amounted  to  nothing.  This  took  place  in  1604.  The 
Puritans  were  very  unfairly  represented,  and  afterwards 
scoffed  at  its  proceedings.  There  were  numerous  ob- 
jections made  to  the  ritual  —  the  cross  in  baptism, 
the  ring  in  marriage,  and  the  surplice  in  preaching. 
Soon  after  this  conference  Whitgift  died.  It  is  said  of 
Whitgift  that  he  .spoke  very  plainly  to  the  queen  with 
regard  to  Church  spoliation.     The  rescue  of  its  prop_ 


ANNALS    OF   THE   CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  407 

erty  from  her  covetous  grasp  is  ascribed  to  Whitgift. 
He  was  not  a  time-server,  as  were  some  of  the  bishops 
during  the  reign  of  James. 

Bancroft  succeeded  Whitgift  to  the  primacy.  Ban- 
croft, says  Southey,  had  neither  the  wisdom  nor  mod- 
eration of  Parker  or  Whitgift.  He  framed  canons  by 
which  all  persons  who  spoke  in  derogation  of  the 
Church  of  England  were  to  be  excommunicated,  and 
with  an  impolicy  as  gross  as  his  intolerance,  when 
several  Puritans  wished  to  migrate  to  some  of  the 
colonies'*  of  America,  he,  instead  of  rejoicing  that 
intractable  spirits,  as  some  of  the  Puritans  were,  were 
willing  to  leave  the  country,  obtained  a  proclamation 
whereby  they  were  forbidden  to  leave  it  without  a 
special  license  from  the  king. 

He  ejected  from  their  benefices  all  who  would  not 
conform  to  the  rules.  The  Church  was  weakened 
under  his  policy,  and  at  the  accession  of  Abbott  it  was 
found  that  opponents  of  the  Church  system  had  in- 
creased in  number.  Abbott  was  appointed  to  the 
primacy,  not  on  account  of  any  peculiar  fitness  for  his 
high  office,  but  from  favoritism.  The  appointment  of 
Andrews,  a  man  of  marked  ability  and  excellent  spirit, 
was  desired  by  the  true  friends  of  the  Church,  but  they 
were  overruled.  Abbott,  however,  seems  to  have  been 
a  good  man,  though  without  great  qualities.  He 
showed  his  steady  virtue  in  refusing  to  grant  a  divorce 
to  the  Earl  of  Rochester  that  he  might  marry  the 
wicked  Countess  of  Essex.  For  this  independence  he 
lost  for  a  time  the  favor  of  the  king.  At  the  same 
time  he  is  accused  of  making  the  tribunal  of  the  High 
Commission  more  terrible  than  ever  from  the  imposition 
of  heavy  fines.     Yet  his  sensibility  was  so  wounded  by 


408  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

causing  the  death  accidentally  of  a  man  when  he  was 
hunting,  that  his  own  life  was  shortened  by  sorrow. 
This  seerns  hardly  consistent  with  the  disposition 
ascribed  by  some  historians  to  him  of  moroseness  and 
tyranny.*  Abbott  from  his  death-bed  implored  James 
I.  to  raise  an  army  to  assist  his  son-in-law,  the  elector, 
who  was  fighting  for  Protestantism. 

James  was  vain,  selfish,  and  vacillating.  He  sup- 
posed himself  capable  of  settling  everything  in  the 
Church,  because  theology  had  been  his  favorite  study, 
There  was  much  time-serving  in  the  reign  of  James. 
He  attempted  to  defeat  justice  by  brow-beating  the 
judges,  but  Sir  Edward  Coke  bravely  refused  to  be 
influenced  by  him.  Sir  Francis  Bacon  is  said  to  have 
sanctioned  torture  in  this  reign. 

*  Abbott  was  a  Calvinist,  and  was  accused  of  being  too  lenient  to 
the  Puritans. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  4O9 


CHAPTER  XLII. 

The  discovery  of  the  gunpowder  plot  in  1605  natu- 
rally awakened  suspicion  in  the  king  and  his  court. 
Bishop  Andrews,  the  great  preacher  of  the  day,  was 
exhorted  to  write  against  the  Romanists.  The  spirit 
of  controversy  infected  many  of  the  great  divines  of 
that  day.  They  should  have  been  differently  em- 
ployed. A  great  crisis  was  approaching.  "If  the 
Marian  fires,"  says  Canon  Perry,  "the  French  St. 
Bartholomew,  the  50,000  victims  of  the  Low  Countries, 
did  not  avail  to  destroy  their  influence  or  lessen  their 
power,  what  hope  of  usefulness  could  reasonably  be 
expected  from  controversy?" 

Now  for  the  first  time  a  sacramental  test  was  used 
in  the  service  of  persecution.  Recusants  were  re- 
quired not  only  to  attend  the  parish  church,  but  to  re- 
ceive the  Lord's  Supper.  One  noble  work  must  not 
be  forgotten  as  belonging  peculiarly  to  the  reign  of 
James  L  The  encouragement  that  James  gave  to  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  must  be  heartily  recognized. 
The  king  was  well  aware,  from  his  scholastic  attain- 
ments, of  the  deficiences  of  the  Bishops'  Bible,  and  as  a 
theologian,  he  had  an  antipathy  to  the  Calvinistic  per- 
versions of  Scripture  in  the  Genevan  Bible.*  He 
wrote  to  Bancroft,  who  was  Bishop  of  London,  that  he 
had  selected  fifty-four  divines  for  the  work,  Bancroft 
informed  his  brother  bishops  of  the  wishes  of  the  king. 


•■Canon  I'eiry.      Or  rather,   the  marginal  notes. 


410  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

They  were  expected  to  consult  all  the  learned  men  of 
their  diocese,  and  ask  their  suggestions  in  all  passages 
of  difficulty.  When  the  work  was  begun,  in  1607,  the 
fifty-four  divines  were  reduced  to  forty-seven.  How 
thorough,  true,  grand  and  beautiful  this  translation 
was,  and  is,  all  Protestant  English-speaking  people 
have  declared  with  uniform  acclaim. 

In  1 610,  three  bishops  were  consecrated  for  Scot- 
land. An  objection  was  urged  by  some  of  the  Scotch 
clergy  to  consecration  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bery,  lest  the  Scotch  Church  should  be  subjected  to  the 
English  Church.  To  avoid  any  subject  of  jealousy, 
neither  of  the  archbishops  took  any  part  in  the  conse- 
cration. Several  years  after  this  time,  1637,  when  the 
liturgy  was  read  in  the  Cathedral  of  Edinburg,  a  furi- 
ous riot  ensued,  James  I.  and  his  advisers  understood 
the  temper  of  the  Scotch  people  far  better  than  the 
indiscreet  ecclesiastics  of  Charles  I.  James  had  posi- 
tively refused  to  adopt  the  stringent  policy  that  was 
afterwards  attempted  in  the  reign  of  his  son.  These 
objections  to  a  harsh  policy  probably  arose  in  his  mind 
after  he  had  permitted  a  great  crime  to  be  committed, 
in  allowing  two  unhappy  men  to  be  burned  for  their 
religious  opinions.  One  of  these  men  was  brought  into 
the  presence  of  the  king,  that  he  might  convince  him 
of  his  Socinian  errors.  When  the  man  refused  to  ac- 
cept his  arguments,  it  is  said  he  spurned  him  with  his 
foot.  The  usual  excuse  has  been  made  for  James,  that 
toleration  was  not  understood,  and  that  heresy  was  be- 
lieved to  be  high  treason  against  the  Almighty. 

These  burnings  excited,  however,  such  horror 
among  the  people,  who  had  become  strangers  to  such 
cruelties,  that  the  king  was  obviously  ashamed  of  what 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  4I  I 

he  had  done.  James  was  an  absolutist  in  politics,  and 
very  impatient  of  contradiction  in  his  religious  opin- 
ions. Under  his  rule  had  taken  place  an  ominous  union 
of  Patriots  and  Puritans,  Many  of  these  men  loved 
the  Church,  but  unwilling  to  lose  their  political  rights, 
they  formed  an  alliance  with  men  who  thought  with 
them  on  political  subjects.  This  was  a  natural  result. 
James  claimed  "the  divine  right  of  kings,"  and  to 
their  shame  be  it  spoken,  there  were  clergymen  in  his 
day  who  sustained  him  in  this  idea.  Strange  as  it  may 
appear  to  us,  there  were  really  good  men  who  believed 
in  "passive  obedience." 

The  claims  of  James,  however,  startled  many 
thoughtful  Englishmen,  who  concluded  that  "  if  the 
practice  should  follow  the  king's  theories,  they  would 
not  be  likely  to  leave  to  their  successors  the  freedom 
they  had  derived  from  their  ancestors." 

We  must  now,  for  a  short  space,  retrace  our  steps. 
About  the  time  that  Luther  cast  aside  the  veil  that 
covered  the  corruptions  of  Rome,  a  great  man  arose  in 
Spain — Ignatius  Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  Jesuits. 
He  saw  the  corruption  of  the  Romish  communion, 
which  he  loved,  and  determined  to  create  an  order 
which  would  enter  into  all  the  ramifications  of  society, 
lay  hold  of  the  springs  of  social  life,  and  seize  by  a 
skillful  policy  upon  all  the  schools  and  colleges.  We 
have  already  spoken  of  the  introduction  of  Jesuit 
priests  into  England  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and 
the  summary  measures  that  were  adopted  to  drive  them 
from  the  country  and  to  prevent  the  establishment  of 
their  schools  in  England,  They  were  punished  as 
traitors,  rather  than  heretics.  The  efforts  of  Loyola 
had  been  endorsed  by  the  Pope.      He  had  constructed 


412  ANNALS   OF  THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

a  wonderful  system,  a  deeply  laid  scheme  to  control 
the  destinies  of  the  world. 

Before  the  actors  in  the  busy  drama  of  European 
politics  had  specially  marked  the  course  of  this  enter- 
prising astute  order,  it  had  sent  out  emissaries  into  all 
the  world.  Loyola's  successors  had  followed  the  track 
of  maritime  discovery.  Their  missions  were  sent  out 
into  all  the  world,  to  India,  South  America,  China  ; 
but  above  all,  they  in  little  more  than  fifty  years  had 
filched  from  Protestantism  many  of  her  provinces.  They 
produced  a  counter  reformation.*  The  provinces  of 
Southern  Germany,  Bohemia  and  Poland  were  restored 
to  the  papal  see.  The  Huguenots  in  France  lost  in 
numbers  and  in  power.  Many  left  the  country  at  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  Great  efforts  were 
made  to  seduce  Sweden,  but  in  this  they  utterly  failed. 
There  were  doubtless  assisting  causes  besides  the  ener- 
getic efforts  of  the  disciples  of  Loyola.  Protestantism 
had  wasted  its  strength  in  theological  controversies,  in 
bitter  disputes,  between  the  churches  which  followed 
Luther  and  the  churches  which  followed  Calvin.  The 
German  princes  who  espoused  the  cause  of  the  refor- 
mation used  it  and  prostituted  it  to  their  political  ends 
and  aims.  The  papacy  meanwhile  rallied  the  Catholic 
world  to  revise  the  Council  of  Trent.  At  this  council 
(impelled,  it  is  probable,  by  the  knowledge  of  the 
superior  morality  of  the  Protestants),  they  deliberated 
seriously  on  the  morals  of  their  clergy.  They  passed 
decrees  on  this  subject  which  challenged  general  appro- 
bation. 

The  Council  of  Trent,  which  was  summoned,  it  was 


*  We  have   alluded   to  this   counter  reformation  in  our  sketch  of 
Moravianism. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  413 

alleged,  to  explain  and  reform  the  doctrine  and  disci- 
pline of  the  Church,  produced  new  enormities,  inasmuch 
as  they  placed  among  the  doctrines  necessary  to  be 
believed,  and  guarded  by  anathemas,  the  doctrine  of 
the  seven  sacraments,  the  necessity  of  auricular  con- 
fession, the  canonical  authority  of  the  Apocryphal 
books,  etc. 

No  pope  was  personally  present  at  this  Council,  but 
it  was  governed  by  his  legates.  This  Council  seemed 
more  anxious  to  serve  the  interests  of  the  papal  do- 
minion than  the  general  interests  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

Some  provinces  of  the  Romish  church  receive  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  entire,  without  excep- 
tions or  conditions,  as  Portugal,  Italy,  portions  of 
Germany.*  That  part  of  the  Council  which  related  to 
the  doctrines  of  religion  was  admitted  as  a  rule  of  faith 
among  the  French.  But  that  part  which  relates  to 
discipline  and  ecclesiastical  law  has  been  constantly  re- 
jected by  France,  as  it  was  deemed  hostile  to  the  rights 
of  the  French  Church.  The  Vulgate,  the  old  Latin 
version,  was  declared  authentic. 

Both  sacred  and  secular  learning  were  held  in 
greater  esteem,  after  the  time  of  Luther,  by  Romish 
Christians,  than  ever  before,  especially  by  the  Jesuits. 
The  written  word  of  God,  and  the  unwritten^  i.  e.,  the 
traditions  of  the  Church,  are  the  two  sources  of  Christian 
knowledge. 

At  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  the  Protestants  saw 
their  losses.  The  dream  of  a  reformation  of  the  Uni- 
versal Church  was  at  an  end.  When  awakened  from 
this  dream  many  of  the  Protestants  of  England  became 

*  Mosheim. 


414  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

excited  and  restless.  Any  ceremony,  however  beautiful 
and  innocent,  if  it  was  retained  or  used  by  the  Roman 
Catholics,  became  distasteful  to  them.  We  have  al- 
ready said  that  James  claimed  the  divine  right  of 
kings.  His  aggressive  tone  on  the  rights  of  freemen 
soon  evolved  an  alarmingly  aggressive  tone  in  the 
House  of  Commons  towards  the  monarchy  and  the 
Church.  Three-fourths  of  the  Parliament  that  met  in 
1604  were  in  sympathy  Puritan,  not  Presbyterian. 
James  had  been  frightened  by  the  Presbyterians  in  his 
youth,  and  he  now  chose  to  confound  them.* 

The  name  was  of  little  consequence.  All  the  great 
and  good,  with  few  exceptions,  were  opposed  to  the 
extravagant  claims  of  James  and  the  high-churchism 
that  threatened  the  Church. 

In  our  inquiry  as  to  the  causes  that  seemed  to  arrest 
Protestantism  in  its  onward  march,  near  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  we  must  not  forget  certain  in- 
dividuals who,  though  within  the  fold  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  labored  with  a  Irue  Christian  spirit  to  extend 
the  knowledge  of  Christ.  Among  the  Jesuits  who 
took  the  lead  in  the  work  of  missions  was  Francis 
Xavier,  commonly  called  the  Apostle  of  the  Indies. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Loyola.  Both  teacher  and 
disciple  were  very  different  in  their  spirit  and  teaching 
from  many  of  the  Jesuits  who  came  after  them,  those 
"who  compassed  sea  and  land  to  make  proselytes," 
yet  taught  their  benighted  hearers  but  little  of  the 
gospel  of  our  Lord. 

In  1549  Xavier  went  to  Japan  and  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  a  numerous  body  of  Christians,  which 
flourished  for  many    years    in    the    empire.      Xavier 

*  Green's  History  of  Englad. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  415 

composed  some  delightful  hymns  that  Protestants  now 
sing  in  their  churches  with  much  zeal. 

Ricci,  a  learned  Jesuit,  went  to  China,  1582,  and 
by  practicing  many  ingenious  devices  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  Chinese.  After  twenty  years'  labor 
he  gained  access  to  the  Emperor,  and  soon  gained  a 
numerous  body  of  converts. 
^  SL  Theresa,  in  Spain,  was  preeminent  in  seeking  to 
effect  a  reform  amid  the  Carmelite  nuns.  She  was  a 
true  disciple  of  Christ.  She  tried  to  convince  her  sis- 
ters that  no  seclusion  from  the  world,  no  discipline  of 
mind,  was  sufficient  without  useful  labor.  By  suitable 
employment  the  mind  was  best  preserved  from  un- 
profitable, sinful  and  wandering  thoughts.  She  de- 
sired to  inspire  them  with  what  she  calls  the  prayer  of 
love,  where  the  soul  forgets  itself,  and  listens  only  to 
the  voice  of  the  Heavenly  Master. 

The  institutions  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  were  estab- 
lished in  the  same  spirit  as  those  of  Theresa.  He 
founded  the  order  of  Visitation.  This  order  was  in- 
tended to  protect  delicate  females  from  direct  penances 
and  from  austere  communities.  His  order  is  said  to 
have  exercised  a  beneficent  influence  in  France. 
About  this  time  the  Ursuline  Nuns  went  to  France 
and  placed  themselves  over  the  schools  of  young  girls. 
Vincent  de  St.  Paul  appeared  also  in  France  as  the 
missionary  of  the  people.  He  founded  the  order  of 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy. 

THE   JANSENISTS. 

The  society  of  the  Jesuits,  however,  departed  more 
and  more  from  the  principles  of  their  founder.  They 
constantly  acted   upon    the   dangerous   principle   that 


4l6  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

"  the  end  sanctifies  the  means."  Some  of  them  said, 
"  To  take  a  false  oath  is  in  itself  a  deadly  sin  ;  but  he 
who  swears  outwardly,  without  inwardly  intending  to 
do  so,  is  not  bound  by  his  oath.  He  does  not  mean, 
he  only  jests."  'It  had  been  a  principle  that  he  who 
took  the  Jesuits'  vow  should  abandon  temporal  posses- 
sions ;  but  they  now  so  managed  property  that  they 
received  all  the  benefits  by  transferring  property  to  the 
respective  colleges  with  which  they  were  connected. 
When  the  Jesuits  became  corrupt,  an  opposition  to 
their  false  doctrines  arose  in  Jansenism,  so  called  from 
their  teacher,  Jansen.  This  man,  with  his  friend,  Du 
Verger,  studied  at  the  University  of  Lourain,  Holland,* 
where  the  true  doctrines  of  the  gospel  had  never  been 
entirely  forsaken,  the  learned  theologians  say.  His 
associate,  Du  Verger,  labored  in  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Cyran  to  do  the  same  work  that  Jansenius  did  at  the 
university.  They  endeavored  to  revive  true  doctrine 
as  taught  by  Augustin.  Jansenius  boldly  attacked  the 
Jesuits  in  their  doctrines.  He  taught  the  necessity  of 
grace,  ' '  the  baptism  of  the  Spirit, "  to  aid  the  will  which 
is  in  bondage  to  earthly  desires. 

Du  Verger  devoted  himself  in  the  midst  of  Paris  to 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  early  Christian 
Fathers.  Many  distinguished  persons  attached  them- 
selves to  his  tenets,  such  as  Arnauld,  an  intimate  friend 
of  Richelieu,  and  of  Anne  of  Austria.  Angelique 
Arnauld,  with  her  nuns  of  Port  Royal,  became  Jansen- 
ists  and  were  renowned  for  good  works.  Port  Royal 
authors  became  very  celebrated.  Blaise  Pascal  was 
one  of  these.  Jansenius  died  before  his  book  was 
printed.     St.   Cyran,    his  coadjutor,    was    thrown  into 

^*  There  is  still  Jansenism  in  Holland. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  417 

prison   by   Richelieu,  who  had  an    antipathy  to   such 
effective  doctrines  as  were  preached  by  the  Jansenists. 

St.  Cyran  tried  to  do  good  to  the  souls  of  men 
while  in  prison.  Like  Paul  and  Silas,  he  preached  to  his 
jailers.  He  was  released  after  the  death  of  Richelieu, 
1643.  The  Jansenists  bore  a  close  analogy  to  those 
Protestants  who  have  retained  episcopacy  or  govern- 
ment by  bishops.  The  Jansenists,  however,  never  left 
the  fold  of  Rome,  though  at  times  fiercely  persecuted. 
They  were  devoted  to  the  writings  of  Augustin,  Je- 
rome and  Chrysostom.  They  believed  they  possessed 
a  pure  tradition  to  the  time  of  St.  Bernard. 

The  hermitage  of  Port  Royal  became  very  celebrated 
as  the  nucleus  of  the  holy  doctrines  of  the  Jansenists. 
They  translated  the  Scriptures  into  their  own  native 
tongue;  also  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  and  the  Latin 
prayer-books.  This  community  of  men,  the  Port 
Royal  authors,  endowed  with  the  highest  intellect,  and 
actuated  by  the  most  noble  aims,  exercised  an  exten- 
sive influence  on  the  literature  of  France  for  many 
years.  "The  literary  splendors  of  the  age  of  Louis 
XIV.  may  safely  be  attributed  to  the  Jansenist  authors 
of  Port  Royal."  * 

During  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  X.  Jansenist 
divines  were  heard  preaching  from  the  pulpits  of  Rome. 
Their  essential  doctrines,  consisting  of  five  propositions, 
were  examined  and  passed  upon  by  a  court  of  Rome. 
Innocent  X.  cared  not  for  the  investigation  of  doc- 
trine, but  he  was  forced  to  issue  a  bull  condemning  the 
five  propositions.  The  Jansenists  were  remarkable  for 
holiness  of  life  and  great  devotion  to  good  works. 
Some    of    them    were    called    Mystics   or    Quietists. 

•■  Draper. 


41 8  ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

About  the  same  time,  1668,  lived  Madame  Guyon,  a 
distinguished  Quietist.  She  propagated  her  religious 
views  by  books  and  tracts.  She  was  befriended  by  the 
great  Fenelon,  Archbishop  of  Cambray. 

Bossuet,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  wrote  a  book,  contro- 
verting, as  he  supposed,  the  doctrines  of  Madame 
Guyon.  He  applied  to  the  good  Fenelon  to  endorse 
his  book  against  the  heresies  of  Guyon.  Fenelon  ob- 
jected, saying  that  he  considered  the  errors  of  the 
book  consisted  rather  in  fervid  expressions  than  in 
heretical  doctrines.  Fenelon  published  a  book  in 
1697,  declaring  that  he  adopted  some  of  her  opinions, 
especially  the  mystical  precept  that  we  ought  to  love 
God  purely,  without  the  expectation  of  any  reward. 
This  produced  a  controversy  with  Bossuet,  who  sent 
Fenelon 's  book  to  the  Pope.  It  was  indeed  a  defense 
of  Quietism. 

Innocent  XII.,  after  a  long  silence,  passed  a  mild 
censure  upon  the  book,  but  censuring  still  more  the  ene- 
mies of  Fenelon,  who  had  written  so  violently  against  it. 
It  is  said  Fenelon  withdrew  his  book,  and  accepted 
the  condemnation  of  the  Pope.  Previous  to  his  con- 
troversy with  Bossuet,  Fenelon  had  stood  high  in  the 
royal  favor  and  with  Madame  de  Maintenon.  He  had 
first  been  appointed  missionary  to  the  Protestants,  in 
the  vicinity  of  Paris,  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes.  In  receiving  this  appointment,  he  pre- 
ferred to  the  king  one  petition — that  there  should  be  no 
violence  permitted  in  his  diocese.  He,  by  his  mild 
measures  and  great  eloquence,  is  said  to  have  been  very 
successful  in  winning  many  Protestants  to  Catholicism, 
or  at  least  to  the  doctrine's  he  taught,  which  were  full 
of  Christian  love.     For  some  years  Fenelon  was  the 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  4I9 

preceptor  of  the  grandsons  of  Louis,  the  Dukes  of 
Burgundy,  Anjou  and  Berry.  He  wrote  admirable 
books  for  their  instruction.  One  of  these  was,  "  Tele- 
maque,"  in  which  the  author  significantly  points  out 
the  duties  of  a  monarch  to  his  subjects.  The  book 
was  anonymous,  but  so  soon  as  the  king  discovered 
that  Fenelon  was  the  author  of  the  book,  the  good 
archbishop  was  restricted  to  the  diocese  of  Cambray, 
and  not  permitted  to  appear  again  at  court.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  good  works,  and  it  is  supposed,  re- 
tained to  the  last  his  Mystic  or  Quietist  opinions, 
though  for  the  sake  of  the  peace  of  the  Church  he 
withdrew  his  book. 

Madame  Guyon,  after  enduring  some  persecutions, 
died  in  obscurity  in  1702,  She  had  been  always  char- 
itable to  the  poor,  and  devoted  her  whole  time  to  re- 
ligion. 

Port  Royal,  the  celebrated  retreat  for  penitents, 
and  learned  men,  and  noble  women,  was  destroyed  in 
1709.  It  had  exercised  much  influence  over  the  relig- 
ieuses  of  France  for  nearly  a  century.  Louis  XIV., 
at  the  instigation  of  the  Jesuits,  ordered  the  edifice  to 
be  entirely  demolished,  and  the  nuns,  who  still  lived 
there,  were  transferred  to  Paris.  The  institutian  at 
Port  Royal  would  have  been  destroyed  long  before, 
had  not  the  powers  of  the  papacy  been  restrained  by 
the  political  and  clashing  interests  of  France  and  Austria, 
and  even  Spain  sometimes  attempted'  to  restrict  papal 
interference. 

In  1660  the  papacy  seemed  to  be  shorn  of  some  of 
its  Jpower.  Louis  XIV.,  Jthough  superstitiously  de- 
voted to  Romanism,  historians  say,  avenged  himself 
upon  the  court  of  Rome  by  trying  to  lessen  her  power, 


420  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

because  the  Popes  Innocent  X.  and  Alexander  VII. 
and  Clement  IX.  and  Clement  X.  were  on  the  side  of 
Spain.  Louis  XIV.  also  encountered  opposition  from 
Innocent  XI.  in  his  spoliations. 

Certain  bishops  of  Jansenist  opinions  had  been  sub- 
jected to  oppression  because  they  resisted  the  will  of 
the  king  with  regard  to  the  revenues  of  some  bish- 
oprics. On  this  account  they  appealed  to  Pope 
Innocent  XI.,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  good  man. 
He  adopted  their  cause,  and  warned  Louis  to  abstain 
from  using  the  immunities  of  the  church. 

It  had  been  the  maxim  of  the  French  court  that 
the  papal  power  should  be  restricted  by  the  French 
clergy,  and  the  clergy  to  be  kept  within  proper  limits 
by  the  Pope.  The  king,  in  1682,  assembled  a  Convo- 
cation, his  clergy  sustaining  him,  in  which  he  stated 
propositions  declaring  the  independence  of  the  secular 
power,  and  the  king  was  declared  free  from  the  spir- 
itual power.  The  Pope  now  determined  to  refuse  ordi- 
nation or  institution  to  all  who  were  members  of  the 
Convocation  assembled  by  Louis  XIV.  At  this  very 
time  the  king  of  France  pretended  to  prove  his  ortho- 
doxy by  a  relentless  persecution  of  the  Huguenots. 
It  is  said  that  this  Pope  Clement  XIV.  disapproved  of 
the  king's  cruelty  to  the  Huguenots.  In  1773  he  (Clem- 
ent) expelled  the  Jesuits,  extirpating  their  offices, 
houses  and  institutions.  This  order  has  been  repeat- 
edly suppressed  by  kings,  from  a  jealousy  of  the 
power  and  influence  wielded  by  this  body. 

The  effect  of  Jansenism  in  France,  like  Puritanism 
in  England,  seems  to  have  awakened  religious  thought, 
and  to  have  stimulated  intellectual  inquiry.  The  Jan- 
senists   were   more    speculative  and    mystical  in  their 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  42 1 

religion  than  the  Puritans  or  Protestants  of  England. 
They  cared  little  for  politics  or  earthly  power.  They  were 
submissive  to  authority,  finding  happiness  in  the  mon- 
astic institutions  The  Old  Catholics  of  the  present 
time  seem  to  be  Jansenists. 

The  Protestants  of  Sweden,  Germany  and  England 
had  a  powerful  leader  to  defend  their  rights  when  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  arose  to  fight  their  battles.  The  king 
of  Sweden  arrested,  by  his  victories  over  the  Catholic 
powers,  the  papal  inroads  that  had  been  made  since 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

By  the  peace  of  Westphalia  the  great  conflict  be- 
tween Catholic  and  Protestant  powers  was  brought  to 
an  end.  But  a  bitter  struggle  of  a  different  kind 
awaited  the  Church  of  England  ;  "  the  foes  were  those 
of  her  own  household."  The  people  of  England  were 
a  mighty  bulwark  against  either  civil  or  religious 
tyranny,  real  or  imaginary.  The  condition  of  the 
Church  at  the  death  of  James  I.  seemed  prosperous, 
but  its  condition  was  critical,  its  security  was  only 
seeming.  A  fatal — no,  not  fatal, hut. — a  fearful  crisis  was 
at  hand.  The  world,  says  Southey,  did  not  contain 
men  of  stronger  talents,  sounder  learning,  and  more 
exemplary  lives,  than  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land at  that  time.  Their  works  have  stood,  and^  will 
continue  to  stand,  the  test  of  time. 

These  men  were  to  be  tried  in  the  furnace.  Many 
and  various  were  the  circumstances  that  led  to  violent 
measures.  The  times  must  have  been  terribly  out  of 
joint  when  it  was  deemed  necessary  that  the  three  fore- 
most men  in  the  realm — the  pillars  of  Church  and 
State — should  bare  their  necks  to  the  headman's  ax. 
No   moral  stain   could    be    imputed    to   any  of    these 


422  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

men.  Their  trangressions  were  political !  Strafford, 
Laud  and  Charles  I.  The  first  was  considered  by  his 
former  compeers  in  the  House  of  Commons  as  an  apos- 
tate in  political  principle.  He  was  tempted  by  the 
honors  offered  by  the  king,  and  threw  off  the  cloak  of 
patriotism  worn  for  a  time.  He  died  for  political  offenses. 
The  purity  and  decorum  of  the  life  of  Charles  reflected 
no  discredit  upon  his  religion.  But  his  views  of  gov- 
ernment were  false.  He  seemed  not  to  comprehend 
that  a  king  could  not  with  impunity  break  the  laws  of 
his  country.  Laud,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
as  intolerant  in  the  Church,  as  Charles  was  exorbitant  in 
the  State,  in  his  claims  of  kingly  authority.  These  men 
ultimately  fell  under  the  power  of  a  body  of  men — 
Cromwell  and  his  Ironsides — whose  will  for  the  time 
was  resistless,  and  who  knew  no  mercy  until  the  blood 
of  the  victims  flowed  from  the  scaffold.  This  terrible 
drama  was  enacted  before  the  eyes  of  the  English 
people,  and  was  permitted,  we  may  humbly  suppose, 
that  the  world  might  learn  that  a  heavy  penalty  will 
follow  in  the  train  of  disregarded  human  rights,  both 
civil  and  religious. 

Laud  was  brought  to  the  block  at  eighty-two  years 
of  age.  He  died  with  the  most  devout  prayers  upon 
his  lips.  Laud  had  done  many  unwise  things,  and 
acted  in  a  very  arbitrary  way  when  he  tried  to  compel 
the  Scots  to  receive  episcopacy  against  their  will.  He 
attempted  to  increase  the  ritualistic  ceremonies  of  the 
Church  of  England,  when  he  ought  to  have  seen  that 
the  prejudices  of  the  Puritans  (who  still  attended  the 
Episcopal  churches)  were  increasing  more  and  more. 
They  suspected  Laud  of  Romanism.  These  suspicions 
were  not  just,  as  was  proved  by  the  fact  that  a  cardi- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  423 

nal's  hat  was  offered  him  and  he  positively  refused  this 
much-coveted  honor. 

Laud  sinned  with  many  of  his  time  in  trying  to 
bind  the  consciences  of  men.  He  seemed  incapable  of 
conciliation.  The  arbitrary  measures  of  Laud  caused 
emigration  to  America. 

George  Herbert  said: 

"Religon  stands  tiptoe  in  our  land, 
Ready  to  pass  to  the  American  strand." 

Laud  injured  the  church  he  loved  so  well  by  his  taste 
for  show  and  ceremony.  In  his  time  a  painted  window 
was  regarded  as  a  relic  of  idolatry,  and  kneeling  at  the 
chancel  to  receive  the  "sacred  symbols,"  which  we 
now  do  so  innocently,  was  regarded  as  very  sinful,  as 
intimating  that  the  bending  of  the  knee  meant  wor- 
ship. 

Laud  grievously  answered  for  his  faults.  Few 
characters  have  excited  more  controversy.  He  was  a 
benefactor  to  learning.  He  purchased  rare  books  and 
manuscripts.  He  encouraged  the  learned  labors  of 
Ussher,  of  Jeremy  Taylor,  Hall  and  Sanderson ;  but 
his  own  vision  was  too  much  restricted  to  one  range  of 
subjects.  It  is  said  that  his  opposition  to  Calvinism 
was  one  cause  of  his  unpopularity.  Laud  perished 
in  1644;  Charles  in  1648.  Some  of  Charles's  Tjest 
soldiers  clung  to  him,  such  as  Lord  Falkland  —  not 
that  they  approved  his  political  views,  but  because  they 
loved  the  Episcopal  Church  of  England,  and  plainly 
saw  that  it  was  the  object  of  the  Revolutionists  not 
only  to  overturn  the  throne,  but  subvert  the 
altars.  About  the  time  of  Laud's  death,  the  lit- 
urgy, a  blood  -  boughtt  reasure,  was  suppressed. 
In     Edward's     time,     iconoclasm     had    dashed     into 


424  ANNALS   OF   THE   CHURCH    OF   CHRIST. 

pieces  its  stained  glass.  In  Elizabeth's  time,  the  com- 
munion table  was  moved  into  the  middle  of  the  chapel. 
Archbishop  Abbott  tried  to  check  all  attempts  at  a 
higher  ceremonial.  But  Laud  studiously  tried  to  re- 
place the  stained  window  and  the  broken  crucifix. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  425 


CHAPTER   XLIII. 

In  1643,  the  English  Parliament  selected  one  hundred 
and  twenty  of  the  ablest  divines  of  England,  with  thirty 
lay  assessors,  whom  they  commanded  to  meet  at  West- 
minster to  settle  the  worship,  government  and  doctrines  of 
the  Church.  This  famous  Westminster  Assembly  con- 
tinued to  meet  and  discuss  such  subjects  as  the  Parliament 
submitted  for  several  years  in  succession.  They  were 
men  of  different  religious  views  —  Presbyterians,  Eras- 
tians,  Independents,  and  some  moderate  Episcopalians. 
A  deputation  was  sent,  soon  after  the  assembling  of  this 
body,  from  Scotland,  requesting  the  Westminster  As- 
sembly to  sign  the  "League  and  Covenant,"  thereby 
agreeing  to  establish  one  uniform  religion  in  the  three 
kingdoms.  The  Parliament  assented  reluctantly  to  the 
proposition  of  the  Scottish  Church,  in  order  that  they 
might  have  their  assistance  in  their  political  designs. 
They  drew  up  a  Directory  for  Public  Worship,  also  a 
Directory  for  the  Ordination  of  Ministers  and  for  Dis- 
cipline and  Government,  in  1645.  Ruling  elders  were 
chosen  in  1646,  and  the  erection  of  Presbyteries,  Synods 
and  a  General  Assembly,  for  a  trial  of  the  system. 

The  Scotch  Church  objected  to  an  appeal  from  the 
highest  ecclesiastical  judicatory  to  the  Parliament.  The 
English  Presbyterians  sided  with  the  Scotch.  The  king 
was  at  this  time  in  the  hands  of  the  Scots.  The 
English  Presbyterians  determined  to  enforce  Presbyte- 
rianism  ju7'e  divitio  on  all  England,  and  to  allow  no 
toleration  for  dissenters. 


426       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

From  1644  to  1647,  ^^^  Independents  greatly  in- 
creased in  number.  They  uniformly  pleaded  for  the 
toleration  of  all  sects  who  held  the  fundamental  doc- 
trines of  Christianity.* 

The  intolerant  measures  of  the  Presbyterians  alien- 
ated the  Independents  and  the  army,  and  finally  led  to 
the  subversion  of  the  Presbyterian  establishment  set  up 
in  England. 

Not  one  of  the  leading  Puritans,  says  Mr.  Green,  of 
the  Long  Parliament  was  a  Presbyterian.  Pym  and 
Hampden  were  disposed  to  Episcopacy,  but  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Presbyterian  system  was  forced  upon  the 
Puritan  patriots  by  political  considerations. 

The  demand  of  the  House  of  Commons  for  scrip- 
tural proofs  of  the  divine  authority  of  Presbyterianism 
produced  warm  debates  in  the  Westminster  Assembly. 
The  Independents  and  Erastians  at  length  withdrew 
and  protested.  The  Presbyterians,  fifty-three  in  num- 
ber, now  left  alone,  voted  almost  unanimously  that 
"  Christ  has  appointed  a  Church  government,  distinct 
from  the  civil  magistrate."  No  opinion  can  be  more 
correct  than  this  ;  but  what  government  did  he  ap- 
point ?    This  still  remains  a  question  in  many  minds. 

In  1847,  provincial  synods  met  in  London,  and  con- 
tinued to  meet  until  the  end  of  Cromwell's  reign. 

The  king,  though  a  prisoner,  and  moved  by  the 
entreaties  of  his  queen,  refused  steadily  to  yield  his 
assent  to  the  new  ecclesiastical  constitution  of  En- 
gland. At  the  same  time,  he  tried  to  detach  the 
Scotch  from  the  English  by  promising  them  Presby- 
terianism in  Scotland  and  Episcopacy  in  England.     But 


•  Murdocks  Mosheim. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  427 

they  rejected  his  offers,  hoping  still  to  bless  England  as 
well  as  Scotland  with  Presbyterianism. 

The  country  now  swarmed  with  sectarians.  Mr. 
Baxter  mentions  the  chief  separatists  as  Independents, 
Anabaptists,  and  Antinomians.  The  Antinomians  were 
very  rigid  Calvinists.  Some  of  these  fanatics  seemed  to 
consider  themselves  free  from  the  moral  law,  arguing 
that  if  they  were  the  elect  of  Christ,  and  that  Christ  in 
their  stead  had  obeyed  the  law  and  suffered  its  penalty, 
nothing  more  could  be  required  of  those  who  were 
satisfied  of  their  election.  Doctrines  like  these  could 
only  be  maintained  by  madmen  and  hypocrites,  with 
the  New  Testament  in  their  hands. 

The  king  also  tried  to  gain  over  the  Independents, 
promising  them  free  toleration  ;  but  his  concessions 
failed  to  benefit  him. 

The  Assembly's  short  Catechism  was  presented  to 
parliament  in  1647,  ^ri^  the  larger  Catechism  in  1648, 
The  army  demanded  of  the  Parliament  free  toleration  for 
all  Protestant  dissenters.  The  Presbyterians  vigorously 
opposed  this,  and  endeavored  to  disband  the  army. 
The  army  now  took  the  king  from  the  hands  of  the 
Parliament  and  became  peremptory  in  their  demands. 

In  May,  1648,  the  Scots  invaded  England,  in  otrder 
to  rescue  the  king.  The  Parliament  likewise  com- 
menced a  negotiation  with  the  king  for  his  restoration, 
upon  the  basis  of  a  single  religion,  with  no  toleration 
for  any  other.  The  king  insisted  upon  Episcopacy,  the 
Parliament  on  Presbyterianism. 

The  army  drove  back  the  Scotch  army,  seized  again 
the  king's  person,  purged  the  House  of  Commons  of 
many  of  its  members,  remodeled  the  government, 
impeached   the   king,    Charles    Stuart,  and    beheaded 


428  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

him.  A  short  time  previous  to  the  death  of  the  king, 
ParHament  had  enacted  a  ferocious  law  in  its  sectarian 
zeal.  The  death-penalty  was  fixed  upon  all  who  should 
deny  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  or  the  resurrection  of 
the  body  ;  while  persons  believing  that  man  by  nature 
hath  free  will  to  turn  to  God,  or  denying  the  lawfulness  of 
Church  Government  by  Presbytery,  were  to  be  punished 
with  imprisonment.  This  statute  was  never  enforced, 
but  it  suggested  extraordinary  means  of  resistance. 

Charles  perished  January,  1649.  The  House  of 
Lords  and  the  monarchy  were  abolished  a  few  days 
after  his  death.  The  solemn  League  and  Covenant  was 
laid  aside,  and  nothing  but  an  engagement  or  oath  of 
allegiance  to  government  was  required  of  any  man  to 
qualify  him  civilly  for  any  living  in  the  country.  Hence 
many  Episcopal  divines  now  returned  and  became 
parish  ministers. 

In  1653,  the  Parliament  that  had  sat  for  thirteen 
years,  and  for  four  years  without  a  king  or  House  of 
Lords,  was  ordered  to  disperse. 

Cromwell  the  Protector  tried  to  make  men  of  all 
religions  feel  easy  under  his  government,  yet  all  Papists 
and  Episcopalians  were  excluded  from  full  toleration. 
Cromwell,  however,  forbade  all  the  clergy  from  med- 
dling with  politics.  The  Presbyterians,  in  1659,  seeing 
no  prospect  of  restoring  the  League  and  Covenant 
under  the  Cromwellian  Protectorate,  formed  a  coalition 
with  the  Royalists  to  put  Charles  H.  upon  the  throne. 
The  remains  of  the  Long  Parliament  were  restored. 
Charles  H.  came  back  in  1660,  amid  bonfires  and 
rejoicing.  No  stipulations  had  been  made  as  to  the 
national  religion.    Episcopacy  was  soon  restored.   Some 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  429 

hundreds  of  the  Presbyterian  ministers  were  displaced 
to  make  way  for  the  old  Episcopal  incumbents. 

In  1662,  an  act  oi  uniformity  wz.'s,  passed  which  made 
it  criminal  to  dissent  from  the  Established  or  Episcopal 
Church.  A  number  of  Presbyterian  ministers  con- 
formed, but  about  2,000,  most  of  them  Presbyterians, 
lost  their  places.  A  far  wider  change  had  been  made 
during  the  civil  war,  when  7,000  Episcopal  clergy  had 
been  ejected  from  their  parishes,  to  suffer  the  extreme 
of  poverty.  But,  says  a  late  historian,  the  Episcopal 
clergy  were  ejected  as  much  on  political  as  on  religious 
grounds.  The  fidelity  of  those  men  to  their  Church 
and  king  did  not  lessen  their  sufferings.  We  see, 
during  those  times,  Prideaux,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  was 
torced  to  sell  all  his  household  stuff  that  he  might 
procure  food  for  his  family,  and  we  see  Chillingworth, 
a  lover  of  toleration,  taken  prisoner  by  Sir  William 
Waller  and  treated  with  great  indignity.* 

In  the  new  Parliament  of  1661,  the  new  members 
were  yet  better  Churchmen  than  they  were  Royalists. 
A  common  suffering  had  thrown  the  gentry  and  the 
English  clergy  together,  and  the  squires  were  now 
zealous  for  the  Church. 

Some  attempts  at  conciliation  were  made  in.  the 
Convention  that  met  soon  after  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  so  that  the  bulk  of  the  Puritan  party  could 
remain  in  the  Church  of  Cranmer  and  Latimer.  No 
compromise  with  the  Independents  was  possible.  Arch- 
bishop Ussher  and  Sir  Matthew  Hale  were  both  anxious 
that  some  concessions  should  be  made  to  the  Puritans. 
Many    moderate    Presbyterians    seemed    disposed    to 

*  Green.' 


430  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.   ' 

accept  terms.  They  (Ussher  and  Hale)  proposed  some 
amendments  in  the  Liturgy,  omitting,  as  the  Puritans 
called  them,  "superstitious  practices,"  also  proposing 
to  give  Episcopacy  the  synodical  government  of  the 
ancient  Church.  Hyde,  Earl  of  Clarendon,  however, 
objected,  and  the  compromise  was  never  made.  The 
ejected  Episcopal  clergy  entered  into  their  livings 
(many  of  them  had  died),  the  bishops  returned  to 
their  sees,  the  Convention  Parliament  was  dissolved,  and 
every  hope  of  compromise  was  removed.  Had  the 
concessions  been  made  that  were  so  earnestly  wished 
for  by  some  of  the  greatest  and  best  of  both  parties, 
it  is  believed  that  Howe  and  Baxter,  and  many  others, 
would  have  been  reconciled  to  the  Church  of  England. 
At  the  dissolution  of  this  Convention  2,000  Presby- 
terian divines,  as  we  have  already  said,  some  of  them 
distinguished  for  learning  and  piety,  gave  up  their 
livings. 

Jeremy  Taylor  and  Chillingworth  were  now  dead, 
but  in  their  successors  were  found  the  pious,  good  sense 
of  Burnet,  the  enlightened  wisdom  of  Tillotson,  and 
the  logical  philosophy  of  Bishop  Butler.  A  class  of 
divines  came  to  the  front  at  the  Restoration,  who  were 
neither  High  Church  nor  Puritans.  We  mean  Jeremy 
Taylor,  Stillingfleet,  Hales,  Chillingworth,  Sherlock, 
Burnet,  Butler.  These  were  enlightened,  devout  men, 
but  they  abhorred  persecution.  Some  of  these  men, 
though  devoted  to  their  Church,  as  it  then  existed, 
desired  to  include  dissenters.  They  opposed  dogma, 
and  insisted  that  the  Apostles'  Creed  seemed  to 
them  the  one  term  of  Christian  union  that  the 
Church  had  a  right  to  impose.  Chillingworth, 
in   his  meetings,  said,    "Take  away  this  persecution, 


ANNALS   OF  THE   CHURCH   OF   CHRIST.  43 1 

this  burning  and  damning  of  men,  because  they 
refuse  to  subscribe  to  the  words  of  men  as  the 
words  of  God."  Call  no  man  Master  but  Christ. 
Hale  based  his  love  and  loyalty  to  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land on  the  fact  that  it  was  the  most  tolerant  church 
in  Christendom.  Jeremy  Taylor  pleaded  for  the  Ana- 
baptist and  the  Romanist.  For  all  religions  he  would 
plead  freedom,  except  those  that  would  destroy  gov- 
ernment or  teach  ill  life. 

These  men  were  called  in  their  day  Latitudinarians, 
because  they  simplified  belief,  and  required  only  essen- 
tial doctrines  as  taught  in  the  New  Testament. 

A  halo  encircles  the  names  of  those  clergymen  of 
whom  we  have  just  spoken,  who  refused  to  persecute 
for  opinions'  sake,  and  whose  only  motive  was  a  re- 
spect for  the  rights  of  man  and  a  love  for  humanity. 

The  Quakers,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  excited 
alarm  by  their  extravagance  of  manner,  their  refusal  to 
take  oaths,  and  other  peculiarities.  Many  of  them 
were  put  in  prison.  When  Charles  II.  published  the 
"Declaration  of  Indulgence, "  in  1672,  thousands  of 
Quakers  were  set  free.  The  famous  John  Bunyan,  the 
author  of  Pilgrim's  Progress,  came  out  of  Bedford  jail 
at  this  time.  Roman  Catholics  at  this  time  practiced 
their  religion  only  in  private  houses.  Charles"  made 
this  "Declaration,"  not  that  he  cared  for  religious  lib- 
erty, but  that  he  might  serve  his  own  political  aims. 
Charles,  however,  had  not  a  persecuting  spirit. 
Charles  II.,  if  he  had  any  religious  faith,  was  a  Roman 
Catholic.  Our  readers  will  remember  Macaulay's 
graphic  description  of  the  last  scene  in  his  death-cham- 
ber— when  the  priest  entered  at  the  back  door  of  his 
room,  to  administer  the  last  sacrament. 


432  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

When  James  II.  succeded  to  the  throne  of  England 
in  1685,  he  pledged  his  word  to  keep  the  laws  and  to 
protect  the  Church.  It  was  the  word  of  a  king,  but 
not  of  an  honest  man.  He  failed  to  observe  either 
oaths  or  pledges.  James  attempted  to  seize  the  uni- 
versities in  order  to  place  in  them  Roman  Catholic 
professors.  When  he  met  with  opposition,  he  sought 
to  deprive  of  their  offices  those  who  appealed  to  the 
law  against  him.  When  the  Bishop  of  London  refused 
to  suspend  a  vicar  for  preaching  against  Popery,  he 
suspended  the  Bishop. 

In  1687,  James  turned  to  the  Nonconformists  and 
v[\3idQ3i  proclamation  which  annulled  all  penal  laws  against 
Dissenters  and  Roman  Catholics  alike.  The  Dissenters 
understood  James's  motive  too  well  to  be  flattered  by  so 
illegal  a  transaction.  He  ordered  every  clergyman  in 
April,  1688,  to  read  his  Declaration  in  every  church 
for  two  successive  Sundays. 

Bancroft  the  Archbishop,  and  six  of  his  suffragans, 
signed  a  protest  to  the  king,  in  which  they  declined  to 
publish  an  illegal  declaration.  "It  is  a  standard  of 
rebellion,"  said  James,  as  he  looked  at  the  protest. 
He  ordered  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners  to  deprive 
them  of  their  sees.  The  commissioners  shrunk  from 
such  an  attempt.  The  Chancellor,  Jeffreys,  advised  a 
prosecution  for  libel  as  an  easier  mode  of  punishment. 
The  Bishops  refused  to  give  bail,  and  they  were  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower. 

On  June  29,  the  Bishops  appeared  as  criminals  at 
the  bar  of  the  king's  bench.  No  sooner  were  the 
words  "not  guilty"  uttered  by  the  foreman  of  the 
jury,  than  the  glad  plaudits  of  the  multitude  were 
heard  on  all  sides.     Had  this  assumption  of  authority 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  433 

attempted  by  James  been  admitted,  the  constitution  in 
Church  and  State  would  have  received  its  death-blow. 
The  Bishops  declared  in  their  protest  that  it  was  from 
no  want  of  loyalty  to  the  king,  nor  from  any  want  of 
tenderness  to  the  Dissenters,  but  from  the  conviction 
that  the  declaration  was  absolutely  illegal.  The  peti- 
tion was  signed  by  the  Primate,  by  Lloyd,  Bishop  of 
St.  Asaph,  Turner,  of  Ely,  Lake,  of  Chichester,  Ken, 
of  Bath  and  Wells,*  White,  of  Peterborough,  Trelaw- 
ney,  of  Bristol. 

The  king's  Declaration  fell  to  the  ground.  The 
clergy  were  almost  unanimous  in  refusing  to  read  it. 
Louis  XIV.  sent  word  by  the  English  embassador  to  the 
king  of  England  that  he  was  ready  to  give  him  everyjas- 
sistance  needed.  France  was  at  this  time  the  most  power- 
ful country  in  Europe.  The  days  of  James  II.,  as  a  king, 
were  numbered.  The  nation,  disgusted  with  his  tyranny 
and  hypocrisy,  determined  to  invite  over  William  III., 
Prince  of  Orange,  who  had  married  Mary,  daughter  of 
James  II.,  to  be  the  joint  sovereigns  over  the  realm  of 
England. 

Mary  was  a  Protestant  in  heart  and  education. 
She  was  the  granddaughter  of  Hyde,  Earl  of  Claren- 
don, the  devoted  friend  of  the  Church  of  England. 
William  was  the  cousin  of  Mary,  as  he  was  the  grand- 
son of  Charles  I.,  of  England.  In  1689,  William 
III.,  by  an  express  act  of  Parliament,  relieved  all  Dis- 
senters (except  Socinians)  from  all  penalties  to  which 
they  were  by  law  exposed. 

Sancroft,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  seven 
other  Bishops,  all  men  distinguished  for  their  learning 

»  Ken   was   the   author   of  the  evening  hymn  "  Glory  to  thee,  my 
God,  this  night."  ~- 


434       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

and  for  the  purity  of  their  morals,  declared  that  they 
could  not  conscientiously  take  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the 
new  king,  William  III.,  because  in  their  view  James  II. 
was  the  legimate  king  of  England. 

Among  those  who  chose  to  incur  the  penalty  of  de- 
privation, rather  than  transfer  that  allegiance  which 
they  believed  to  be  indefeasible,  were  five  of  those  seven 
to  whose  brave  resistance  the  nation  was  mainly  in- 
debted for  its  deliverance  from  an  arbitrary  government 
and  a  persecuting  religion.  The  Bishops  who  refused 
to  take  the  oath  were  called  Non-juring  Bishops.  "  It 
must  be  admitted,"  says  Mr.  Southey,  "that  they 
judged  erroneously,  but  never  were  men  in  error  more 
entitled  to  respect."  The  government  treated  them 
with  tenderness,  and  long  put  off  the  deprivation, 
which  they  were  at  length  compelled  to  pronounce. 
The  non-jurors  died  away  long  before  the  House  of 
Stuart  was  extinct. 

The  Bishops  who  entered  upon  the  sees  of  those  who 
were  displaced  were  Tillotson,  Moore,  Patrick,  Fowler, 
Kidder  and  Cumberland.  These  men  were  among  the 
brightest  ornaments  of  the  English  Church. 

We  have  spoken  of  emigration  to,  and  colonization 
in,  North  America.  As  early  as  1607  there  was  a 
Church  of  England  settlement  in  Virginia,  but  the 
great  mass  of  the  emigrants  to  New  England  were  In- 
dependents. 

Maryland  was  settled  by  Roman  Catholics,  whose 
liberal  laws  gathered  around  them  many  other  denomi- 
nations. South  Carolina  was  settled  largely  by  Hugue- 
nots— French  Presbyterians.  The  Dutch  settled  New 
York,  but  in  a  few  years  it  became  the  possession  of 
Englishmen.     Georgia  was  colonized  by  General  Ogle- 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       43  5 

thorpe  with  a  hundred  and  twenty  emigrants,  togethe^ 
with  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  England.  Oglethorpe 
was  a  benevolent  reformer.  .   " 

The  cause  of  religion  must  have  suffered  from  the 
immoral  sentiments  and  licentious  living  of  Charles  II. 
and  James  II.  Yet  there  lived  and  labored  during 
these  reigns  some  of  the  brightest  characters  and  most 
faithful  men  that  adorn  the  "Annals  of  the  Church." 
Mary,  who  succeeded  her  father,  was  a  pious  woman, 
as  "simple  concerning  evil"  as  James  was  cunning 
and  treacherous.  Her  husband,  William,  was  a  man  of 
war,  devoting  but  little  time  or  thought  to  the  arts  of 
peace.  Mary,  however,  was  faithful  in  good  works. 
The  adoption  of  the  Bill  of  Rights  in  1688  gives  hon- 
orable distinction  to  the  reign  of  William  III.  Burnet 
was  the  chaplain  of  Mary.  By  his  kindly'  intervention 
all  disaffection  was  removed  from  William's  mind  as 
regarded  the  superior  rights  of  his  wife  Mary  to  the 
throne  of  England. 

The  deadness  of  the  religious  sentiment  in  the 
eighteenth  century  has  frequently  been  stated  by  relig- 
ionists in  writing  of  these  times.  Some  have  ascribed 
this  indifferentism  to  the  preaching  of  the  Latitudina- 
rians,  who,  it  has  been  affirmed,  preached  merely 
moral  essays.  We  believe  this  idea  to  be  errone- 
ous. 

Such  men  as  Jeremy  Taylor,  Chillingworth,  South, 
and  others,  must  have  elevated  rather  than  depressed  the 
tone  of  true  religion.  They  were  opposed  to  dogma. 
They  used  enlightened  reason  as  an  interpreter  of  the 
word  of  God.  These  men  were  succeeded  by  Tillotson, 
Butler,  and  other  learned,  devout  clergymen.  But  to 
whatever  cause  or  causes  the  lukewarmness  in  religion 


436  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

is  to  be  ascribed  during  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  we  suppose  the  fact  is  indisputable. 

After  the  termination  of  the  social  and  political 
tyranny  in  religion  of  the  Commonwealth,  the  reaction 
was  terrible.  The  tone  of  Butler's  Hudibras  predom- 
inated in  serious  things.  There  was  much  iniquity  in 
high  places  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and  the 
brief  reign  of  James  II. 

England  sent  out  large  armies  to  war  during  the 
reigns  of  Mary  and  Anne.  The  demoralizing  effects 
of  war  are  easily  understood.  Bolingbroke  and  Horace 
Walpole,  the  Duke  of  Grafton  and  Lord  Chesterfield, 
all  exercised  an  immoral,  irreligious  influence  upon  the 
higher  circles  of  English  society.  They  were  witty, 
worldly,  wicked  men. 

Many  of  the  statesmen  of  this  time  were  unbeliev- 
ers in  any  form  of  Christianity.  The  infidelity  of 
Hobbes,  and  Hume,  and  Bolingbroke,  in  England,  and 
the  blasphemous  wit  of  Voltaire  in  France,  were  shed- 
ding a  baleful  poison  among  all  classes.  But  "at 
heart"  England  was  religious.  During  the  minis- 
try of  Walpole  there  were  few  new  schools  estab- 
lished, and  few  new  churches  built.  But,  in  the  rural 
districts  there  was  family  religion,  and  in  the  parish 
churches  the  grand  old  liturgy  was  still  uttered  by  de- 
vout lips. 

A  great  revival  of  religion,  of  which  we  will  pres- 
ently speak,  was  at  hand.  During  the  time  of  which 
we  have  just  spoken — we  mean  the  period  of  alleged 
indififerentism  in  religion — there  was  pulpit  ability  in  the 
churches  of  London  and  vicinity. 

Bishop  Atterbury  had  not  yet  been  banished  from 
his  native  land  for  an  imputed  correspondence  with  the 


ANNALS   OF  THE   CHURCH    OF   CHRIST.  437 

Jacobites.  (The  adherents  of  the  Stuarts,  and  the  op- 
ponents of  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover, 
were  called  Jacobites.)  This  famous  divine  was  ac- 
cused of  a  correspondence  with  Charles  Edward, 
grandson  of  James  H.  Atterbury  was  eloquent  in  the 
scriptures.  He  was  the  contemporary  of  the  erudite 
Gibson,  Bishop  of  London,  also  of  Hoadly,  Bishop  of 
Bangor,  in  1717,  and  much  later,  1734,  the  Bishop 
of  Winchester  occupied  a  high  place  among  the  Eng- 
lish clergy.  He  asserted  in  his  sermon,  "My  king- 
dom is  not  of  this  world,"  that  Christ  was  king  in  his 
own  kingdom,  and  that  he  had  not  delegated  this 
authority  to  any  temporal  power.  William  Law,  the 
champion  of  authority,  both  in  Church  and  State,  was 
his  opponent. 

Law  is  the  author  of  a  book  called  "  Law's  Serious 
Call."  The  writer  of  these  sketches  read  this  book 
in  her  youth,  and  felt  alarmed  by  its  strict  require- 
ments. Seeker  and  Warburton  also  lived  at  this  time. 
Among  the  Presbyterians  was  Isaac  Watts,  who  wrote 
so  many  beautiful  spiritual  hymns ;  and  the  devout 
writer  of  the  "Rise  and  Progress  of  Religion  in  the 
Soul,"  Philip  Doddridge.  This  is  a  book  that  the 
earnest  seeker  after  truth  reads  with  intense  interest. 

Surely  "in  these  times  of  deadness  and  defection," 
there  was  no  want  of  faithful,  spiritual,  intellectual  men. 
In  the  literary  world  there  were  stars  of  the  first  mag- 
nitude. The  glories  of  the  age  of  Shakespeare,  Milton, 
Newton,  Boyle,  still  reflected  a  moral  grandeur  on  the 
land.  But  there  was  indisputably  much  ignorance  and 
vice  among  the  masses.  A  new  phase  of  religious 
fervor  appeared  in  a  knot  of  Oxford  students.  The 
earnest  souls  of  these  young  men  rebelled  against  the 


438  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

coldness  so  manifest  both  in  professors  and  people. 
They  began  the  work  of  inflaming  their  souls  by  a 
round  of  ascetic  observances,  and  a  methodical  regu- 
larity of  life  which  gained  them  the  name  of  Methodists. 
Whitefield  was  one  of  these  young  men,  and  he  soon 
attracted  much  attention  by  his  fervid  harangues.  So  ex- 
travagant was  he  in  his  declamation  that  some  time-serving 
Episcopal  clergymen  closed  the  doors  of  the  churches 
against  him,  and  he  began  to  preach  in  the  fields. 
The  vice  chancellor  of  Oxford  at  this  time  seems  to 
have  been  a  godly  man,  as  he  shows  great  solicitude 
that  the  students  should  have  excellent  instruction. 
He  had  an  edict  posted  in  many  of  the  college  halls 
that,  inasmuch  as  the  prevalent  news  of  infidelity  had 
possibly  affected  some  of  the  members  of  the  univer- 
sity, the  professors  and  teachers  at  Oxford  should 
give  double  diligence  to  the  explanation  of  the  Articles 
of  Religion  and  their  Christian  duty,  and  in  recommend- 
ing to  them  the  careful  and  frequent  reading  of  the 
scriptures. 

A  late  biograper  of  Wesley,  in  order  to  give  as  dark 
a  coloring  as  possible  to  the  immorality  of  the  times, 
quotes  a  sermon  in  1724,  of  the  Bishop  of  Litchfield, 
depicting  the  desecration  of  the  Lord's  day,  and  the 
drunkenness  and  sensuality  of  the  times.  Doubtless  the 
times  were  very  iniquitous,  but  such  testimony  as  this 
biographer  brings  forward  is  extremely  uncertain.  If 
some  of  the  sermons  now  preached  in  this  nineteenth 
century,  true  pictures,  too,  of  a  large  number— if  these 
sermons  were  published  for  a  future  century,  the  same 
views  might  be  taken  of  our  present  time  as  our  biog- 
rapher would  have  us  take  of  the  eighteenth  century; 
yet  we  believe  the  Church  in  every  branch  is  increasing 
in  power  to  overcome  evil. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  439 

Whitefield  and  the  Wesleys  deeply  loved  the  souls 
of  men,  and  b)^  the  powerful  principle  of  "love"  they 
were  mighty  in  overthrowing  the  citadels  of  sin  wher- 
ever erected.  The  human  heart,  with  its  tenderest 
sympathies,  not  steeled  and  petrified  by  indulgence  in 
evil  habits,  was  aroused  by  the  clarion  call  of  these 
earnest  preachers  "to  flee  from  the  wrath  to  come." 
Mr.  Whitefield's  preaching  was  wonderful ;  his  eloquence 
elicited  admiration  from  the  fastidious  Walpole ;  it 
opened  purses  of  gold  in  the  pockets  of  those  who  had 
never  before  been  moved  by  "melting  charity."  He 
(Whitefield)  could  look  down  at  Kingwood  upon  the 
faces  of  twenty  thousand  colliers,  begrimed  with  the 
coal  dust  of  Bristol,  and  see,  as  he  preached,  the  "tears 
making  white  channels  down  their  blackened  cheeks." 
All  the  phenomena  of  strong,  spiritual  excitement  fol- 
lowed their  preaching. 

Charles  Wesley  was  the  poet  of  this  Methodist 
movement.  He  wrote  beautiful  hymns,  and  sang  them 
sweetly.  The  singing  of  hymns  among  the  early 
Methodists  was  a  source  of  much  religious  joy,  as  it 
has  been  ever  since  to  all  devout  congregations.  But 
John  Wesley  was  the  leading  spirit,  the  great  practical 
organizer  of  the  body  that  became  very  numerous  even 
before  his  death,  and  is  now  numbered  by  millions  in 
England  and  America. 

John  Wesley  lived  from  1703  to  1791,  nearly  ex- 
tended through  the  century.  When  Whitefield  com- 
menced to  preach  in  the  fields,  Wesley  "could  not  be 
reconciled  to  his  strange  ways."  He-struggled  for  a 
long  time  against  the  admission  of  laymen  as  preach- 
ers, until  his  great  anxiety  for  the  instruction  of  the 
ignorant  and   for  the  salvation  of  souls  overcame  his 


440       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

scruples.  His  father  was  an  admirable  man,  and  a 
regular  clergyman  in  the  Church  of  England ;  and  had 
reared  him  with  very  strict  and  straight  notions  of 
clerical  propriety.  His  mother,  too,  was  a  model 
wife  and  mother.  She,  like  her  sons,  was  very  anxious 
to  enlighten  the  ignorance  of  her  humble  neighbors. 
She  would  encourage  them  to  assemble  in  her  kitchen 
for  prayer,  and  she  would  read  short,  stirring  sermons 
to  them,  uniting  with  them  in  psalmody ;  these  exer- 
cises she  would  have  in  the  absence  of  her  husband, 
who  would  be  called  from  home  on  parochial  duty.  It 
seems  he  had  some  doubts  of  these  irregular  meetings. 
She,  in  writing  to  her  husband  on  this  subject,  said, 
showing  her  great  regard  for  her  marriage  vow,  ' '  If 
you  do  not  approve  of  my  work,  command  me  to  de- 
sist."  The  Wesleys  had  been  nurtured  in  a  pure  and 
holy  atmosphere,  with  great  reverence  for  the  tradi- 
tions of  their  church,  and  no  wish  to  violate  any  of  the 
sanctities  of  their  religious  education,  but  their  hearts 
were  aglow  with  zeal  for  the  benefit  of  their  fellow 
men. 

John  Wesley  clung  to  the  last,  passionately,  to  the 
Church  of  England,  and  looked  on  the  members  of  the 
body  he  had  formed  as  a  lay  society  in  full  communion 
with  it.*  He  censured  the  Moravians,  who  had  been 
his  early  friends  in  the  new  movement,  because  he 
thought  they  endangered  its  safety  by  paying  too  little 
attention  to  forms.  He  also  withdrew  from  White- 
field  on  account  of  his  strong  Calvinism. 

It  is  said  that  when  a  young  man  he  had  been  re- 
buked by  the  Bishops  for  his  too  narrow  churchmanship. 
Of  all  Protestant  churches,   the  Methodist  Society,  or 

*  Green's  History  of  Wesley. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  44 1 

the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  is  the  most  rigid  in 
its  organization,  and  most  absolute  in  its  government. 
The  whole  body  is  placed  under  the  absolute  govern- 
ment of  a  Conference  of  ministers.  The  members  of 
this  church  are  grouped  into  classes ;  they  are  gathered 
into  love-feasts.  So  long  as  John  Wesley  lived  he  had 
the  whole  direction  of  the  new  religious  society. 

The  Wesleys,  John  and  Charles,  seem  to  have  been 
regarded  with  much  kindness  by  Gibson,  Bishop  of 
London ;  also  by  Seeker,  afterwards  Primate.  The 
Wesleys  did  not  quarrel  with  Church  and  State,  but 
were  only  zealous  to  overcome  sin  and  Satan.  The 
action  of  the  Methodists  upon  the  Church  was  admir- 
able. It  aroused  men  from  lethargy..  Poets  like 
Cowper,  and  preachers  like  Cecil  and  John  Newton, 
stirred  the  cathedrals,  churches  and  chapels  into  life.* 

The  hymn  "Jesus,  Savior  of  my  soul,"  written  by 
John  Wesley,  and  the  hymn  of  Toplady,  "Rock  of 
Ages,"  are  chanted  by  Protestants  of  every  name,  un- 
mindful of  the  differing  points  of  doctrine  that  animated 
a  warm  controversy  between  these  two  holy  men. 
Toplady  was  an  Evangelical  minister  of  the  Church  of 
England,  of  Calvinistic  tendencies.  The  beautiful 
hymns  of  the  Presbyterian,  Isaac  Watts,  were  written 
about  this  time.  Philip  Doddridge,  too,  wrote  his 
great  work  entitled  ' '  Rise  and  Progress  of  Religion  in 
the  Soul." 

Near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  Robert 
Raikes,  a  regular  attendant  at  Gloucester  Cathedral, 
established  Sunday-schools.      He  gathered  in  the  chil- 

*  In  Walpole's  day,  says  Mr.  Green,  the  English  were  idle  and  life- 
less. In  our  time  no  body  of  religious  ministers  surpasses  them  in 
piety,  in  philanthropic  energy,  or  in  popular  regard. 


442       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

dren  of  the  poor  and  neglected.  He  hired  rooms  for 
the  schools  in  1781,  and  employed  poor  women  to 
teach  them  to  read,  at  a  shilling  a  day.  This  move- 
ment was  very  popular,  and  in  a  short  time  Sunday- 
schools  were  connected  with  all  the  churches  in  the 
large  towns.  Raikes  was  a  man  of  liberal  education 
and  an  earnest  worker. 

The  labors  of  Hannah  More,  by  her  writings  and 
by  personal  example,  called  the  attention  of  the  edu- 
cated classes  to  the  poverty,  ignorance  and  -crime  that 
existed  among  the  agricultural  laborers.  She  journeyed 
from  parish  to  parish  to  establish  schools  for  the  in- 
struction of  women  and  girls.  She  wrote  religious 
tracts,  that  she  might  in  some  degree  neutralize  the 
effect  of  the  infidel  tracts  that  were  constantly  being 
sent  over  the  channel  from  France,  to  be  distributed 
among  the  masses.  It  was<  about  this  time  that  Clark- 
son  and  Wilberforce  began  a  crusade  against  the  slave- 
trade.     And  Cowper  wrote : 

Slaves  can  not  breathe  in  England, 

When  they  touch  our  shores  their  shackles  fall ; 

Then  why  abroad? 

Among  the  many  philanthropists  of  this  time,  John 
Howard  stood  foremost  in  his  active  sympathy  for  the 
most  wretched  of  men.  The  felon  in  his  cell  attracted 
his  Christian  sympathy.  He  sought  constantly  to 
alleviate  calamity  in  every  form.  For  many  years 
of  his  life  he  devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of  gaol 
and  prison  reform.  He  presented  a  bill  to  the  House 
of  Commons  in  1774,  containing  a  mass  of  information 
with  regard  to  abuses  in  prisons.  Parliament  attended 
to  his  petitions,  and  passed  bills  for  the  better  manage- 
ment of  prisons,  in  adopting  means  for  the  health  and 


ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  443 

comfort  of  the  prisoners.  The  House  of  Commons 
thanked  Howard  for  his  humane  zeal.  He  caused 
copies  of  the  new  improved  prison  laws,  at  his  own  ex- 
pense, to  be  sent  to  every  gaoler  in  the  united  kingdom. 
After  examining  all  the  principal  penal  establishments 
of  England,  he  also  visited  those  of  France,  Germany, 
Holland  and  Belgium.  The  result  of  his  laborious  re- 
searches was  a  work  of  profound  interest  ' '  on  the  state 
of  English  prisons,  and  an  account  of  some  foreign 
prisons." 

We  will  here  quote  from  a  speech  of  Burke,  who 
eloquently  sums  up  the  public  services  of  this  good 
and  great  man.  "He  has  visited  all  Europe,  not 
to  survey  the  sumptuousness  of  palaces,  or  the 
stateliness  of  temples ;  not  to  make  measurements  of 
the  remains  of  ancient  grandeur,  nor  to  form  a  scale  of 
the  curiosity  of  modern  art ;  not  to  collate  medals  nor 
to  collect  manuscripts ;  but  to  dive  into  the  depths  of 
dungeons;  to  plunge  into  the  infections  of  hospitals ; 
to  survey  the  mansions  of  sorrow ;  to  take  the  dimen- 
sions of  misery,  depression  and  contempt ;  to  remem- 
ber the  forgotten  ;  to  visit  the  forsaken,  and  to  compare 
and  collate  the  distresses  of  men  in  all  countries." 

John  Howard  was  an  intelligent,  scientific  physi. 
cian,  and  seems  to  have  taken  "the  great  Physician" 
as  his  model  and  exemplar  in  ministering  to  the  bodies 
and  souls  of  men.  He  died,  at  the  age  of  sixty-four, 
from  a  fever  contracted  from  a  hospital  patient  in 
Kherson,  on  the  Black  Sea.  Did  Protestants  catwnize 
their  saints,  Howard,  the  Good,  would  be  entered  high 
upon  the  lists  with  those  who  have  lived  to  bless  and 
serve  mankind.  Man  delights  to  record  the  names  of 
the  great  and  good  on  tablets  of  brass  and  marble ;  but 


444  ANNALS   OF  THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

these  are  perishable.  The  scroll  of  history  perpetuates 
them  from  age  to  age  ;  but  when  ' '  time  shall  be  no 
longer,"  the  names  of  the  saints  of  the  Most  High 
shall  be  found  written  in  the  "Lamb's  Book  of  Life." 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  445 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

"what  sought  they  thus  afar?" 

We  must  now  cast  our  eyes  upon  our  American 
shores,  and  ask  what  has  the  Church  done  here? 
What  is  the  present  state  of  the  Church  in  our  land  ? 
The  numerous  temples,  whose  spires  point  heavenward, 
from  Maine  to  California,  proclaim  that  we  are  a  reli- 
gious people.  We  must  go  back  to  the  early  estab- 
lishment of  Christian  Churches  throughout  this  land, 
but  it  must  needs  be  a  mere  outline.  Large  bodies  of 
Congregationalists,  or  Independents  (as  they  were 
called  in  Cromwell's  time),  settled  in  New  England  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  Their  peculiar  feature  was  a 
rejection  of  Episcopacy,  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  and  all  the  ritual  of  the  Church  of  their 
mother  country.  Each  congregation  was  united  by  a 
covenant,  submitting  themselves  to  a  pastor  of  their 
own  choice,  and  exercising  discipline  through  certain 
ruling  elders.  Their  doctrinal  views  were  those  of 
Calvin,  but  in  later  days  their  Calvinism  has  been  much 
modified.  They  came  to  the  New  World,  to  the  wil- 
derness, "for  freedom  to  worship  God,"  and  to  effect 
a  more  perfect  teformation  than  had  been  achieved  in 
their  native  land.  We  believe  there  were  many  of 
these  whose  hearts  were  governed  by  strong,  personal 
religion.  Of  their  earnest  piety  there  are  abundant 
records,  landmarks  deep  and  broad. 


446  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

But  the  consciences  of  these  men,  or  of  their  rulers, 
seem  to  have  been  moulded  more  in  the  stern  prin- 
ciples of  the  law  than  in  the  tender  love  of  the  gospel. 
Their  self-will  in  matters  religious  was  great.  The 
lives  and  writings  of  their  early  governors  and  magis- 
trates, are  full  of  strong,  personal  religion.  But  they 
had  not  learned  from  their  own  persecutions  lessons  of 
toleration.  Numerous  sectaries  soon  pressed  into  the 
New  England  colonies.  Baptists,  Quakers,  Church  of 
England  men,  were  all  dealt  with  harshly.  Quakers  were 
treated  with  great  severity.  Banishment  and  imprison- 
ment were  the  punishments  most  frequently  resorted  to. 
"For  the  security  of  the  flock  we  pen  up  the  wolf, 
but  a  door  is  left  purposely  open,  whereby  he  who  in- 
terferes with  our  religion  may  depart  at  his  pleasure." 
The  Puritans  were  at  first  too  busy  to  occupy  their 
thoughts  with  the  instruction  and  conversion  of  the 
Indians.  About  1634,  John  Elliot  crossed  the  Atlantic 
to  become  the  apostle  of  the  Indians.  Elliot  was  a 
man  of  primitive  piety  and  zeal ;  he  had  been  thor- 
oughly educated  at  Cambridge,  and  he  labored  much 
in  mastering  the  difficulties  of  the  Indian  language,  of 
which  there  are  many  dialects.  For  the  support  of 
missions  to  the  Indians  a  large  fund  had  been  collected 
in  Cromwell's  time.  After  the  Restoration,  this  fund  or 
trust  was  directed,  through  the  influence  of  Clarendon, 
to  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  intended.* 

*  Note  on  Unitarianism. — Unitarianism  has  taken  deep  root, 
during  the  last  century,  in  New  England,  especially  in  Boston.  The 
creed  of  Unitarians  is  not  easily  defined,  as  they  disavow  the  right  to  im- 
pose creeds.  There  are,  therefore,  many  shades  of  faith  in  the  Unitarian 
body.  They  all  agree  in  the  subordination  of  the  Son  to  the  Father. 
Arianism,  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  was  so  much  like  Trini- 
tarianism  that  it  was  not  always  easy  to  detect  the  difference.     Modern 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       447 

The  honorable  Robert  Boyle,  a  distinguished 
philosopher  and  Christian,  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
this  trust  for  the  improvement  of  the  Indians,  the  funds 
of  which  were  mainly  expended  at  this  time  in  print- 
ing the  Bible,  and  other  religious  books,  of  Elliot's 
translating,  in  the  Indian  tongue.  His  labor  and  ex- 
ample were  not  without  fruit.  About  a  century  before 
this  time,  the  venerable  and  admirable  Las  Casas,  Bishop 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  had  labored  in  the  wilds 
of  Central  America  to  Christianize  and  enlighten  the 
Indian  tribes  of  that  region.  So  we  see  that  when  the 
love  of  Christ  constrains  us.  Christians  of  every  name 
will  labor  in  His  cause  and  suffer  for  His  sake.  "  When 
Thou  hadst  overcome  the  sharpness  of  death.  Thou 
didst  open  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  all  believers." 

At  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  many  well 
directed  efforts  were  made  for  the  propagation  of  the 
gospel  among  the  heathen  natives  of  New  England. 
In  the  year  1685,  the  Bishop  of  London  persuaded  Dr. 
Blair  to  go  as  his  Commissary  to  Virginia.  For  fifty- 
three  years  he  zealously  discharged  its  duties.  By  him 
the  project  of  training  for  the  ministry  the  English  and 
Indian  youth  was  revived,  and  through  his  labors 
brought  at  last  to  a  successful  issue  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  college  of  "William  and  Mary.^'  Had 
Dr.  Blair  been  made  a  Bishop  instead  of  a  Commissary, 

Unitarianism  is  more  outspoken.  Dr.  Priestley  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  Socinus  in  the  sixteenth,  were  distinguished  teachers  of  a 
modified  Unitarianism.  Dr.  Channing  exercised  much  influence  over 
his  brethren  in  withdrawing  them  from  controversial  divinity.  Dr. 
Channing  was  an  eloquent  sermonizer,  and  a  devout,  learned  man. 
Theodore  Parker,  of  Boston,  and  James  Martineau,  of  England,  have 
been  leaders  in  what  is  called  "A  New  School  of  Thought."  Uni- 
tarians have  been  active  in  works  of  benevolence. 


44^  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

how  different  might  have  been  the  history  of  the 
Church  Episcopal  in  the  eighteenth  century !  It  is 
probable  that  it  was  during  the  administration  of  Dr. 
Blair  that  the  substantial  brick  churches  were  built  in 
Virginia  that  still  endure  to  attest  the  care  of  the 
mother-church  for  her  colonial  children.  The  writer 
of  these  lines  has  worshiped  in  a  church  with  the  date 
1706  affixed  to  the  walls.  Dr.  Bray  was  sent  to  Mary- 
land as  commissary  soon  after  Dr.  Blair.  Dr.  Bray 
was  a  man  of  rare  devotion.  He  abandoned  "the 
prospect  of  large  English  preferment,  to  nourish  the 
infant  church  under  many  difficulties  in  the  spiritual 
wastes  of  Maryland." 

New  Amsterdam,  or  New  York,  as  it  was  called 
after  its  cession  to  the  British,  was  finally  given  up  to 
the  English  at  the  treaty  of  Breda,  in  1667  The  gar- 
rison chapel  was  now  devoted  to  the  use  of  the  Church 
of  England.  "In  1696,  another  church  was  built 
called  '  Trinity. '  It  was  endowed  by  Gov.  Fletcher 
temporarily,  and  in  perpetuity  by  his  successor  Lord 
Combury. "  This  then  was  the  beginning  of  the 
famous  Trinity  of  New  York  city,  which  has  been  en- 
abled by  her  wealth  and  by  God's  blessing  to  plant  so 
many  branches  from  the  parent  tree.  In  1679,  a  peti- 
tion from  a  large  body  of  people  in  the  town  of  Boston 
was  presented  to  Charles  II.,  "that  a  church  might  be 
allowed  in  that  city  for  the  exercise  of  religion,  accord- 
ing to  the  Church  of  England,  bearing  the  name  of  the 
King's  Chapel."  It  was  found  that  throughout  the 
populous  district  around  Boston,  there  were  but  four 
clergymen  who  calleiJ  themselves  ministers  of  the 
Church  of  England.  This  being  reported  to  the 
Church  at  home,  several  of  the  Bishops  set  to  work  to 


ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  449 

adopt  some  means  to  increase  the  number  of  mission- 
aries and  excite  a  zealous  missionary  spirit.  A  charter 
of  incorporation  was  obtained  as  "The  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,"  in  June,  1701,  under  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  as  their  president.  Many 
great  names  in  the  English  Church  appear  in  the  cata- 
logue of  their  first  and  warmest  supporters.  Among 
these  names  were  Beveridge,  Wake,  and  Sharp,  Gibson 
and  Berkeley.  The  last  mentioned  Bishop,  Berkeley, 
lived  after  this  time  in  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  two  or 
three  years.  He  came  to  America  with  the  hope  of 
carrying  out  a  benevolent  scheme  he  had  formed 
of  establishing  a  college  in  the  Bermudas.  Not- 
withstanding the  efforts  of  his  friends  in  England 
to  aid  him,  they  were  all  thwarted  by  Sir  Robert 
Walpole,  the  premier,  who  was  averse  to  strength- 
ening the  Church,  and  cared  nothing  for  religion  or 
morals. 

In  Trinity  Church,  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  where 
Berkeley  often  preached,  is  to  be  seen  the  organ  that  he 
presented  to  this  church  after  his  return  to  the  Old 
World.  Through  the  influence  of  Queen  Caroline, 
wife  of  George  II.,  Berkeley  was  made  Bishop  of 
Cloyne,  in  Ireland.  He  gave  to  Yale  College  a  Hbrary 
of  880  volumes.  Atterbury  said  of  Berkeley:  "So 
much  knowledge,  so  much  piety,  so  much  innocence 
and  humility,  I  should  have  thought  confined  to  angels, 
had  I  never  known  this  gentleman."  Berkeley  was 
celebrated  as  a  philosopher.  He  believed  in  and  taught 
the  strange  theory  of  the  non-existence  of  matter. 
Berkeley  had  an  implicit  trust  in  revelation,  and  never 
dreamed  that  his  theories  would  be  used  as  weapons  of 
skepticism.      Berkeley,  until  his  death  in   1763,  never 


450  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

ceased  to  urge  his  countrymen  to  the  discharge  of  their 
duty  to  the  American  colonies. 

Bishops  Butler,  Sherlock  and  Gibson  labored  in 
vain  with  the  court  and  ministry  to  send  over  a  Bishop 
or  Bishops  to  overlook  and  minister  to  the  plantations 
in  America.*  But  Walpole's  government  was  dead  to 
all  appeals  founded  upon  moral  and  religious  principles. 
In  Virginia,  as  in  England,  the  Methodist  Society  had 
been  formed  in  communion  with  the  Church  of  Eng- 
lar^d.  Mr.  Asbury,  in  America,  a  leader  of  the  Meth- 
odists, had  kept  the  young  exhorters  under  his  charge 
from  assuming  the  power  of  ordained  men.  But  after 
the  American  Revolution,  Wesley,  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
two,  was  persuaded  (seeing  that  the  mother-church 
had  not  yet  sent  a  Bishop)  to  set  apart  Dr.  Coke  as  a 
Bishop  or  Superintendent,  and  gave  him  authority  to 
ordain  Francis  Asbury  to  the  same  office.  Dr.  Coke 
had  been  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  a  Presbyter  of 
the  Church  of  England.  In  company  with  Asbury  he 
traveled  from  one  end  of  this  country  to  the  other, 
preaching  and  administering  the  sacraments.  They 
then  began  to  lay  the  foundations  of  the  goodly  struct- 
ure which  now  occupies  so  large  a  place  and  portion  in 
our  land. 

The  first  Wesleyan  Conference  was  held  in  England 
in  1744.  In  this  Conference,  as  in  all  subsequent  Con- 
ferences, Wesley  urged  the  importance  of  adhering  to 
the  established  Church.  Besides  the  two  Wesleys, 
there  were  present  f  four  ordained  ministers  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  four  lay  preachers.  He  would 
say  to  his  hearers:  "  Look  all  around  you  ;  you  can  not 
unite  with  the  Presbyterians,  Baptists,  Quakers,  or  any 

*  Wilberforce.     t  At  this  first  Conference. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  45  I 

others,  unless  you  hold  the  same  opinions  with  them ; 
but  the  Methodists  do  not  insist  upon  this  or  that  opin- 
ion— they  think  and  let  think.  This  liberty  of  con- 
science is  our  glorying,  and  a  glorying  peculiar  to  us." 
Wesley,  however,  must  have  yielded  at  the  last  his 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  necessity  of  ordination  by  a 
Bishop,  or  he  would  not  as  a  Presbyter  have  assumed 
the  power  of  ordination.  He  was  doubtless  betrayed 
into  this  irregularity  by  an  ardent  love  for  the  souls  of 
men,  believing  that  with  the  name  and  authority  of 
Bishop,  an  officer  known  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the 
Church,  more  good  could  be  effected.  He  was  doubt- 
less disgusted  with  the  slowness  and  want  of  earnest 
zeal  in  the  establishment,  which  delayed  so  long  in 
sending  an  officer  so  necessary  for  godly  discipline  in 
the  Episcopal  Church. 

Bishop  Meade  says,  in  speaking  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  Virginia:  '.'The  authority  of  a  Commis- 
sary was  a  very  insufficient  substitute  for  the  super- 
intendence of  a  faithful  Bishop,  For  nearly  two  cen- 
turies did  the  Episcopal  Church  in  Virginia  try  the  ex- 
periment of  a  system  whose  constitution  required  such,  a 
head,  but  was  actually  without  it.  No  such  officer  was 
there  to  watch  over  the  conduct  and  punish  the  vices 
of  the  clergy."  The  Bishop  of  London  was,  of  neces- 
sity, only  the  nominal  bishop.  It  is  evident  that  the 
Episcopal  Church,  without  such  an  officer,  is  more 
likely  to  suffer  than  any  other  Christian  Society,  be- 
cause our  own  church  makes  this  office  indispensable 
to  some  important  parts  of  ecclesiastical  government 
and  discipline. 

The  Episcopal  Church  in  Virginia  commenced  with 
the  first  settlement  of  the  first  colony.     The  code  of 


452       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

laws  of  that  colony  was  drawn  up  at  a  time  when  re- 
ligion, as  Bishop  Taylor  expresses  it,  ' '  was  painted  upon 
banners  divine,  moral  and  martial,'"  the  laws  being 
enforced  sometimes  in  that  day  by  civil  pains  and  pen- 
alties, which  we  would  fain  forget.  Oppression  and 
arbitrary  rule  in  this  colony  (we  mean  in  its  first  his- 
tory) is  connected  alone  with  one  name,  that  of  Argall, 
who  in  1616  became  governor  for  three  years.  He 
was  removed  by  the  Captain  General  Yeardley,  and  the 
wrongs  of  the  colonists  redressed. 

So  long  as  the  heroic  Smith  remained  with  the 
colony,  the  hostilities  of  the  Indians  were  restrained, 
and  the  injudicious  acts  of  some  members  of  the  Coun- 
cil overruled.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  Smith  arid  his 
associates,  after  landing  at  Jamestown,  was  the  erection 
of  a  rude  church,  made  by  fastening  poles  in  the 
ground,  with  the  sails  of  their  vessels  as  a  roof  Their 
first  church,  built  of  logs,  was  destroyed  by  fire ;  but  as 
an  evidence  of  their  religious  zeal,  they  soon  erected 
another.  A  very  erroneous  idea  of  the  first  settlers  at 
Jamestown,  Virginia,  has  been  adopted  by  some.  We 
would  not  detract  an  iota  from  the  pious  faith  that 
governed  the  Pilgrims  of  Plymouth  in  1620;  but  if 
there  is  any  truth  in  history,  the  little  band  that  landed 
in  Virginia  in  1607  contained  a  large  proportion  of  pious, 
noble  souls.  It  was  declared  by  some  of  them  that 
their  chief  motive  in  crossing  the  sea  was  to  instruct 
and  convert  the  Indians.  See  the  pious  exercises  of 
Rolfe,  as  related  by  Bancroft.  In  all  the  trials  of 
Smith,  in  contending  with  the  treachery  and  hostility 
of  the  Indians,  he  was  supported  by  the  zealous  aid  of 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Hunt.  There  were  three  earnest  min- 
isters of  Christ  among  the  earliest  settlers  at  James- 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  453 

town — Mr.  Hunt,  Mr.  Bucke,  who  came  over  with 
Lord  Delaware,  and  Mr.  Whitaker.  The  name  of 
Whitaker  is  connected  with  the  romantic  story  of  the 
first  Indian  convert,  Pochahontas,  whom  he  baptized 
into  the  Church  of  Christ. 

"It  was  the  great  happiness  of  Virginia,"  says 
Wilberforce,  in  his  History  of  the  Church  in  Virginia, 
"that  the  company  who  managed  her  affairs  looked  far 
beyond  commercial  profit."  The  first  care  of  Mr.  Ed- 
ward Sandys  and  ^Sir  Nicholas  Ferrar  was  to  provide 
for  a  settled  population  by  promoting  female  emigra- 
tion and  colonial  marriages.  They  founded  very  early 
a  college  for  both  English  and  Indian  youth.  They  set 
apart  ten  thousand  acres  of  land  for  the  support  of  this 
college."  But  though  thus  happy  in  the  character  of 
some  of  her  early  settlers,  and  especially  in  her  early 
clergy,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  infant  church 
flourished,  without  many  drawbacks  and  discourage- 
ments. That  there  was  much  sincere  piety  among  those 
who  incorporated  the  forms  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  colony  of  Virginia,  I  doubt  not,  says  Bishop 
Meade,  nor  do  I  question  the  piety  and  fidelity  of  some 
of  the  pastors  and  people  during  their  whole  subse- 
quent history ;  but  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  her 
spiritual  condition  was  specially  defective  during  a  large 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Not  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  congregations  were  supplied  with  ministers, 
the  rest  of  them  being  served  by  lay  readers.  There 
was  at  this  time  very  defective  preaching,  and  some  of 
the  clergy  were  addicted  to  all  the  fashionable  vices  of 
the  day. 

In  the  Church    of   Virginia   there  were    few   who 
made  soul-stirring  appeals  to  men   "to  flee  from  the 


454       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

wrath  to  come."  The  devoted. Mr.  Jarrett,  and  a  few- 
others,  were  faithful  watchmen  upon  "the  towers  of 
Zion." 

The  war  of  the  Revolution  was  approaching,  and 
with  it  the  partial  eclipse  of  the  light  that  had  shone  so 
brightly  during  the  seventeenth  century.  The  attach- 
ment of  some  of  the  clergy  to  the  cause  of  the  king 
subjected  the  Episcopal  Church  to  suspicion,  yet  the 
great  commander  of  the  American  armies  was  her  de- 
voted friend.  The  dispute  about*  church  property 
came  on ;  she  was  deprived  of  all  the  glebe  lands  that 
had  been  bestowed  upon  her  by  the  mother-church  of 
England.  Many  of  her  church  buildings,  erected  in 
the  early  times,  were  occupied  by  the  Baptists  and 
other  sects.  The  chief  cause  of  the  evils  that  came 
upon  the  Episcopal  Church  must  have  been  the  un- 
faithfulness of  her  clergy. 

When  the  War  of  the  Revolution  began  in  1775, 
Virginia  had  ninety-one  clergymen  officiating  in  one 
hundred  and  sixty-four  churches  and  chapels ;  at  its 
close,  it  is  stated,  that  only  twenty-eight  ministers  were 
found  laboring  in  the  best  parishes  of  the  State.  The 
flame  of  devotion  was  kept  burning  in  many  excellent 
families  by  attention  to  the  services  of  prayer  in  the 
prayer-book,  by  teaching  the  children  regularly  the 
catechism,  and  requiring  them  to  commit  to  memory 
portions  of  scripture.  Also,  the  morning  and  evening 
hymns  of  Bishop  Ken,  of  Cowper  and  Wesley. 

The  morning  service,  when  there  was  no  public 
worship  in  the  neighborhood,  was  read  on  Sunday  in 
many  households.  Such  families  were  effective  auxil- 
Haries  in  the  resuscitation  of  the  Church. 


ANNALS    OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  455 

How  often,  says  Bishop  Meade,  in  looking  at  the 
present  (1855)  comparative  prosperity  of  our  Church, 
do  we  say,  "Surely  our  Lord  must  have  loved  this 
branch  of  the  holy  Catholic  Church,  or  he  would  not 
have  borne  so  long  with  her  unfaithfulness,  or  so 
readily  have  forgiven  her  sins." 


456       ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

CONSECRATION  OF  BISHOPS  OF  THE  P.    E.    CHURCH    FOR  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

"  Who  shall  ascend  into  the  hill  of  the  Lord,  or 
who  shall  stand  in  his  holy  place  ?  He  that  hath  clean 
hands  and  a  pure  heart  ;  who  hath  not  lifted  up  his  soul 
to  vanity,  nor  sworn  deceitfully. "  We  come  now  to  the 
successful  efforts  of  the  faithful  in  strengthening  the 
things  that  seemed  ready  to  perish.  The  Episcopal 
churches  in  America  had  felt,  in  consequence  of  their 
imperfect  organization,  that  their  beloved  Church, 
"little  by  little,  was  drooping  into  decay."  Candi- 
dates for  orders  were  compelled  to  cross  the  sea  for  or- 
dination, in  order  to  obtain  the  episcopate. 

Connecticut,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
now  resolved  to  make  an  effort  to  obtain  consecration 
for  a  Bishop  from  abroad.  Dr.  Griffith,  a  Presbyter  of 
the  church  in  Alexandria,  Va.,  was  selected  for  that 
diocese  ;  but  so  depressed  was  the  pecuniary  condition 
of  the  friends  of  the  Church  in  that  vicinity  (it  was 
directly  after  the  war),  that  suitable  arrangements  for 
his  departure  were  not  made  until  two  years  after  his 
election.  Meanwhile  delicate  health  had  supervened. 
Samuel  Seabury,  of  Connecticut,  who  had  suffered  per- 
secution in  his  own  State  for  his  devotion  to  Episco- 
pacy, determined  to  cross  the  sea  to  obtain  that  which 
he  and  the  whole  Church,  scattered  and  disjointed,  as 
it   was,  so   ardently   coveted.     Seabury  received   from 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  457 

three  Scotch  bishops — Petrie,  Skinner  and  Kilgour — 
"a  free,  vaHd  and  purely  ecclesiastical  Episcopacy." 
His  consecration  took  place  in  Aberdeen,   1784. 

In  1787,  Wm.  White  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  Samuel  Provoost,  Bishop  of  New 
York,  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  at  Lambeth 
Palace.  Dr.  Madison,  of  Virginia,  received  consecra- 
tion from  the  same  prelate,  at  Lambeth,  in  1790. 
Madison  entered  upon  his  duties  with  zeal.  He  admits 
that  the  depressed  state  of  his  church  was  chiefly  due 
to  the  want  of  zeal  in  her  clergy.  Bishop  Madison 
made  an  effort  to  bring  back  the  followers  of  Wesley. 
It  was  too  late.     They  had  severed  the  tie. 

After  a  few  visitations  of  Bishop  Madison  through 
his  diocese,  he  seemed  to  become  discouraged  with  the 
languor  of  church  affairs.  The  duties  of  the  College  of 
William  and  Mary,  of  which  he  was  now  President, 
absorbed  much  of  his  attention.  At  the  Convention 
which  met  in  1805  he  called  for  a  suffragan  or  assistant 
Bishop.  This  call  received  no  attention,  and  no  con- 
vention met  again  until  after  Bishop  Madison's' death 
in  18 12.  During  this  interval,  however,  a  young  man 
was  ordained  to  the  Diaconate  by  Bishop  Madison, 
who  was  called  the  Apostle  of  Virginia,  and  certainly 
won  this  title  by  his  great  ability,  devotion  and  energy 
in  the  cause  of  Christ  and  his  Church. 

But  Mr.  Meade,  the  young  man  to  whom  I  have 
alluded,  may  speak  for  himself,  as  I  have  near  me  a 
volume  in  which  he  recounts  some  of  his  early  labors 
and  struggles  to  resuscitate  the  Church  of  his  fathers. 
"My  earliest  recollections  of  the  Church  are  derived 
from  my  attendance  at  a  stone  chapel  in  Frederick 
county   (then   the  backwoods  of  Virginia),    whither  I 


458  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

went  either  behind  my  father  on  horseback,  or  with  my 
mother  and  the  children  in  an  English  chariot.      My 
father  had  lost,    during  the    war  of   the   Revolution, 
nearly  all  his  property,      In  this  war  he  had  served  as 
aid  to  GeneraF  Washington.      At  the  close  of  the  war 
my  father  removed  to  the  fertile  and  beautiful  valley  of 
Frederick,  lying  between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  Allegheny 
Mountains.      My  father  had  taken  an  active  part  in  the 
erection  of  this  house  of  God.*     It  was  about  seven 
miles  from  our  home.     The  clergyman  was   Mr.    Bal- 
maine.      He  had  been  a  chaplain  in  the  United  States 
Army.      He  was  very  attentive  to  his  clerical   duties, 
and  preached  alternately  at  Winchester,  where  he  lived, 
and  in  the  chapel.     The  churches  were  about  ten  miles 
apart.     When  there  was  no  service  at  the  chapel,  my 
father  read  the  prayers  at  home  in  the  assembled  fam- 
ily ;  also  a  sermon.     When   a  death  occurred  among 
the  servants,  he  performed  the  burial  service  himself, 
and  read  Blair's  Sermon  on  Death  the  following  Sun- 
day.     '  *  It  was  in  the  stone  chapel  that  I  officiated  during 
the  first  twenty-five  years  of  my  ministry.     At  the  age 
of  seventeen  I  was  sent  to  Princeton  College,  where, 
of  course,    I   had   no  opportunities  of  acquiring^  any 
further  knowledge  of  my  own  Church  at  that  time,  as 
there  was  then  no  Episcopal  church  at  Princeton."     He 
had  been  receiving,    during  his  sojourn  at  Princeton, 
admirable  letters  from  his  mother  and  his  elder  sister, 
Mrs.  Page,  encouraging  him  to   enter  the  ministry  of 
the  Episcopal  Church,  as  they  discovered  from  his  let- 
ters the  serious  turn  of  his  mind. 

Before  he  left  Princeton,  when  but  nineteen  years 
of  age,  the  first  honors  were  awarded  to  him,  shared 

*  The  stone  chapel. 


ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  459 

by  two  others,  in  a  class  of  forty.  While  at  college 
he  says,  "I  had  only  one  or  two  religious  associates, 
and  but  few  helps  to  advancement  in  the  divine  life.  I 
took  pleasure,  however,  in  reading  a  few  pious  books, 
and  was  engaged  in  a  warfare  with  my  body."  He 
speaks  of  some  of  the  books  that  enlightened  his  mind 
at  this  time.  These  were  the  sermons  and  lectures  of 
Bishop  Porteus,  Wilberforce's  Practical  View,  and  the 
works  of  Mrs.  Hannah  More.  He  thinks  these  books 
were  largely  instrumental  in  producing  evangelical 
views  among  the  influential  families  in  Virginia.  The 
books  most  in  use  before  this  time,  at  least  among  Mr. 
Meade's  friends,  were  Blair's  Sermons,  The  Whole 
Duty  of  Man,  Sterne's  Works,  The  Spectator,  and  some- 
times Tillotson's  Sermons,  which  were  of  the  highest 
grade  then  in  use.  Of  course  we  mean  the  religious 
works  that  were  in  popular  use. 

This  was  a  very  literary  age,  and  some  of  the  pro- 
fessors at  Williamsburg  were  men  of  great  erudition. 
But  the  pulpit  needed  much  reform,  for  the  sermons, 
for  a  long  time,  had  been  almost  entirely  moral  essays, 
with  the  exception  of  the  holy  Mr.  Jarrat's  teaching, 
and  a  few  others. 

In  February,  181 1,  Mr.  Meade  proceedecl  to  Wil- 
liamsburg, a  distance  of-200  miles,  performing  the  jour- 
ney on  horseback.  He  went  thither  to  receive  ordina- 
tion from  Bishop  Madison.  He  describes  the  church 
building  at  Williamsburg  as  in  a  desolate  condition. 

Bishop  Madison  was  the  President  of  William  and 
Mary  at  this  time.  Though  regarded  as  a  pious  and 
learned  man,  he  seems  to  have  been  more  engaged  with 
the  philosophical  and  literary  studies  of  the  professor's 
chair  than    with  the   sacred    duties   of  the  bishopric. 


460  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

This  institution  at  Williamsburg,  of  which  we  have 
spoken,  was  the  Alma  J/^/^r  of  Jefferson,  Madison,  and 
many  other  noble  sons,  some  of  whom  were  very  dear 
to  the  writer  of  these  lines.  Mr.  Meade,  after  receiv- 
ing his  ordination  to  the  Diaconate,  proceeded  to  Rich- 
mond. He  was  much  discouraged  at  the  condition  of 
the  church  buildings,  as  well  as  the  low  state  of  piety 
that  ,he  witnessed  in  both  these  cities.  Less  than  a 
year  after  Mr.  Meade's  visit  to  Richmond,  a  large 
church  was  erected  in  Richmond  called  the  Monu- 
mental Church,  so  called  because  it  was  built  on  the 
site  of  a  theatre  burned  in  December,  181 1.  It  was 
considered  as  a  monument  to  the  loved  and  lost,  as 
well  as  a  temple  for  the  worship  of  God.  Mr.  Meade 
commenced  his  ministry  in  the  "stone  chapel"  in 
Frederick,  but  in  a  few  months  he  took  charge  of 
Christ  Church  in  Alexandria.  He  made  salutary 
changes  in  the  habits  of  the  church  people  of  Alexandria. 
Members  of  Congress  came  over  from  Washington  to 
hear  the  young  gifted  preacher.  Among  these  were 
John  Randolph  and  James  Milnor. 

Mr.  M.  was  a  distinguished  lawyer  from  Philadel- 
phia. His  connection  with  Meade  began  at  a  time 
when  his  religious  character  and  new  purposes  of  life 
were  receiving  their  direction.  He  had  now  the  privi- 
lege of  such  spiritual  teaching  as  was  rare  in  these 
days.  How  largely  Mr.  Milnor  was  indebted  to  this 
association  with  Mr.  Meade,  for  those  clear  views 
which  determined  him  to  relinquish  a  profession  which 
had  secured  to  him  honor  and  wealth,  and  to  devote 
the  rest  of  his  life  to  the  ministry  of  the  gospel,  is  one 
of  those  disclosures  reserved  for  the  last  day.  Mr. 
Meade's  pen,  too,  was  often  employed    in   preparing 


ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST.       46 1 

manuals  of  instruction  for  the  young  and  prayers 
for  families.  His  influence  was  so  practical  that 
"Family  Prayer"  became  the  general  rule  in  congre- 
gations where  he  ministered. 

In  the  spring  of  1812  Bishop  Madison  died.  The 
first  voice  that  was  raised  to  rouse  and  rally  the  supine 
members  of  the  Church  was  that  of  the  young  Deacon 
that  ministered  in  Alexandria.  He,  in  conjunction  with 
the  Rev.  W.  H.  Wilmer,  wrote  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Buchanan, 
of  Richmond,  requesting  him  to  call  a  Convention  in 
May.  Mr.  Wilmer  had  come  to  Alexandria  as  pastor 
of  St.  Paul's  Church. 

When  Mr.  Meade  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood, 
the  ordaihing  was  performed  by  Bishop  Clagget,  of 
Maryland,  in  Alexandria.  The  ordination  sermon  was 
preached  by  Mr.  Wilmer.  At  the  Convention  in  18 12 
a  professor  in  William  and  Mary  College  was  nominated 
to  the  Episcopate.  He  received  the  majority  of  votes 
of  the  clergy,  but  the  lay  delegates,  together  with  Mr. 
Wilmer,  refused  to  vote,  on  some  technical  ground. 
Mr.  Meade,  with  his  accustomed  moral  courage,  said 
with  much  pain  that  his  refusal  to  vote  was  not  from 
anything  connected  with  the  proceedings,  but  from  an 
honest  conviction  of  the  unworthiness  of  the  Bishop- 
elect.  The  professor,  however,  who  had  been  elected, 
feeling  perhaps  his  own  unfitness  for  so  responsible  and 
so  holy  an  office,  sent  in,  soon  after  his  appointment, 
his  resignation,  which  was  accepted.  The  honest  con- 
scientiousness of  Mr.  Meade  and  others,  in  their  re- 
fusal to  vote  for  Dr.  Bracken,  and  his  consequent  resig- 
nation, opened  the  way  for  the  entrance  of  the  honored 
and  beloved  Richard  Channing  Moore.  He  came  to 
Virginia  from  the  diocese  of  New  York.      "  He  soon," 


462  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

says  Mr.  Meade,  * '  became  as  one  of  us,  and  the  people 
and  clergy  of  Virginia  loved  him  more  and  more  unto 
his  life's  end." 

In  1 8 14,  Dr.  Moore  was  declared  to  be  duly  elected 
to  the  Episcopate  of  the  Diocese  of  Virginia.  With 
Mr.  Moore's  consecration,  hope  sprung  in  the  hearts 
of  many  who  had  been  hitherto  despairing.  The 
efforts  of  Bishop  Moore  were  unremitting  to  build  up 
"  the  waste  places  "  of  the  Diocese  committed  to  his  care. 
He  had  many  qualifications  for  the  work  of  revival. 
His  imposing,  venerable  presence,*  his  melodious  voice, 
his  fervid,  eloquent  preaching,  his  evangelical  doctrine, 
his  peace-loving  temper,  and  above  all,  his  warm  love 
and  zeal  for  the  cause  of  the  Master,  and  for  the  inter- 
ests of  his  Church,  contributed  to  make  this  servant  of 
God  eminently  successful. 

The  Church  greatly  revived  and  increased  under  his 
ministrations.  He  exerted  a  hallowed  influence  over 
his  clerical  and  lay  associates.  His  parochial  engage- 
ments with  the  Monumental  Church  in  Richmond  pre- 
vented him  from  crossing  the  Allegheny  Mountains  or 
visiting  the  more  remote  parts  of  the  State.f  He 
visited  North  Carolina  when  it  was  without  a  Bishop, 
after  the  death  of  Bishop  Ravenscroft,  in  1830.  A 
large  number  of  able,  devoted  men  were  now  found 
among  the  clergy  of  Virginia. 

*The  life-like  portraits  of  Bishop  Moore  attest  his  unusual  personal 
advantages.  The  writer  of  these  lines  had  in  her  youth  the  privilege  of 
studying  her  Bible  lessons  with  the  daughters  of  Bishop  M.  in  his  well- 
furnishexl  library. 

t  This  section  of  the  State,  now  separated  and  called  West  Virginia, 
has  happily  a  diocese  of  her  own.  Under  the^  energetic  and  zealous 
efforts  of  her  present  Bishop,  the  Rt.  Rev.  G.  W.  Peterkin,  the 
Church,  with  the  bles.sing  of  God,  will  be  greatly  strengthened  and 
extended. 


ANNALS   OF   THE   CHURCH    OF   CHRIST.  463 

The  Theological  Seminary  at  Alexandria  prospered. 
Dr.  Keith,  Dr.  Wilmer  and  Mr.  Norris,  noble  sons  of 
learning  and  piety,  were  among  her  Professors.  Mr. 
Meade  was  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  semi- 
nary at  Alexandria.  Though,  as  we  have  said,  Bishop 
Moore  was  unable,  from  engagements  and  increasing 
infirmities,  to  visit  West  Virginia,  yet  he  sent  some 
excellent  clergymen  to  that  portion  of  the  diocese  at 
an  early  day. 

We  must  now  return  to  Mr.  Meade,  who  was  the 
assistant  Bishop  of  Richard  Channing  Moore  for  the 
last  twelve  years  of  his  life.  After  the  erection  of  a 
church  at  Milwood,  Clarke  county,  the  stone  chapel 
(of  which  we  have  spoken)  was  appropriated  to  the 
colored  people.  This  example  of  providing  church 
buildings  for  the  slaves  was  followed  in  different  parts 
of  the  State.  Mr.  Meade,  many  years  before  his 
death,  liberated  several  families  of  his  slaves  and  sent 
them  to  Pennsylvania.  He  was  an  active  member  of 
the  Coloinization  Society. 

Bishop  Meade's  sister,  Mrs.  Anne  R.  Page,  of 
Clarke  county,  Va. ,  was,  it  is  believed,  the  first  person 
in  her  native  State  who  agitated  the  question  of  pre- 
paring slaves  for  freedom  by  suitable  education.  This 
lady  devoted  the  best  years  of  her  life  to  th^^  instruc- 
tion of  her  own  slaves.  She  afterwards  sent  them,  fully 
provided  with  necessaries,  to  Liberia.  An  interesting 
memoir  of  this  servant  of  God  was  written  and  pub- 
lished many  years  ago  by  the  Rev.  C.  W.  Andrews. 
"  In  a  future  world,"  says  Gurley,  in  his  Lifje  of  Ash- 
man, when  speaking  of  Mrs.  Page  and  Mrs.  Custis, 
"it  may  stand  revealed  that  from  the  sacred  retirement 
of  a  few  devout  ladies  in  Virginia,  who,  at  the  Savior's 


464  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

feet,  had  learned  better  lessons  than  this  world  can 
teach,  emanated  a  zeal  and  charity  in  behalf  of  the 
colored  race,  which  has  widely  spread,  and  has  inspired 
ministers  and  statesgien  with  eloquence  in  their 
cause." 

In  1829,  Mr.  Meade  was  made  assistant  Bishop  of 
Virginia.  On  the  death  of  the  Rev.  Channing  Moore, 
in  1 84 1,  the  assistant  vj2iS  made  Bishop  of  Virginia,  and 
in  1842,  John  Johns,  of  Maryland,  was  made  assistant 
Bishop.  Bishop  Meade  was  engaged  for  thirteen  years, 
during  eight  months  in  each  year,  in  traveling  over  the 
State  on  horseback  or  in  an  open  carriage.  In  after 
years,  routes  for  traveling  were  easier,  and  the  labor 
devolving  upon  the  Bishop  was  performed  in  a  shorter 
period. 

The  writer  of  these  lines  often  heard  the  statement 
that  Mr.  Meade  never  received  any  compensation  as 
Bishop  for  his  varied  and  arduous  services  until  Bishop 
Johns  was  associated  with  him.  Then  a  change  of 
circumstances  occurred.  We  can  appeal  to  his  own 
written  statement  on  this  subject :  "  During  the  twenty- 
five  years  that  I  officiated  in  my  parish  in  Frederick 
county,  Va.  (now  Clarke),  my  salary  did  not  exceed 
1^250  or  ;^30o,  I  have  been  blamed  for  this ;  but  in 
justice  to  my  parish  I  must  say  that  while  I  did  not 
press  my  own  claims,  having  a  farm  that  yielded  a 
sufficient  support,  I  distinctly  told  my  congregation  of 
about  thirty  families  that  I  should  expect  them  to  do 
more  for  other  objects.  According  to  my  desire,  my 
people  for  twenty-five  years  (at  the  end  of  which  I  gave 
up  the  charge)  have  annually  sent  out  of  the  parish 
$1,000  for  charitable  purposes."  This  was  a  noble  ex- 
ample of  disinterested  beneficence. 


ANNALS   OF  THE   CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  465 

Mr.  Meade  was  almost  an  ascetic  in  his  way  of 
living.  He  discouraged  ostentation  and  luxury  in  every 
form.  He  lived  in  a  refined,  cultivated,  hospitable 
neighborhood,  but  his  household  and  belongings  were 
marked  by  severe  simplicity.  His  sermons  on  self- 
denial  were  very  effective,  because  ' '  he  practiced  what 
he  preached." 

We  will  close  this  long  article  on  the  Church  in 
Virginia  by  quoting  a  few  lines  from  Bishop  Meade's 
writing  in  regard  to  his  churchmanship :  "I  have  fre- 
quently read  over  the  arguments  in  favor  of  Episco- 
pacy and  concurred  with  entire  satisfaction  in  the 
words  of  our  consecration  service.  To  those  reading 
the  Scriptures  and  the  Holy  Fathers,  it  evidently  ap- 
pears that  from  the  Apostles'  time  there  have  been 
three  orders  of  ministers.  More  than  this  our  Church 
requires  not  even  her  Bishops  to  believe,*  and  he  who 
would  demand  more  may  be  conscientious,  may  be 
scriptural,  but  he  has  gone  beyond  the  Church ;  he  has 
departed  from  the  spirit  of  the  Episropal  Church  of 
England  or  America.  Whether  God  did  positively  or- 
dain this  form  of  church  government  as  essential  to  the 
existence  of  a  Church,  what  deviations  from  it  would 
render  ordination  invalid,  are  points  about  which  the 
most  wise  and  learned  and  devoted  Bishops  have  dif- 
fered.     I   would  that  all  embraced  what  I  believe  to 


*  Reply  to  a  letter  in  Johns'  Memoir  of  Meade. 

Note. — Though  the  writer  of  these  sketches  has  chiefly  spoken  of 
the  Bishops  of  the  P.  E.  Church,  her  heart  turns  with  deep  interest  to 
noble  Presbyters  who  have  borne  the  burden  and  heat  of  the  day.  In 
memoriam  is  deeply  engraven.  May  we  mention  C.  W.  Andrews,  J. 
P.  McGuire,  James  Chisholm,  Dr.  Sparrow — but  their  name  is  legion. 
Not  only  to  these  known,  loved,  honored,  of  our  communion,  but  to  all 
the  true  and  faithful,  though  called  by  other  names. 


466  ANNALS   OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

have  been  the  ApostoHc  form.  With  none  other  would 
I  be  satisfied  myself;  but  I  dare  not  say  God  hath  ever 
in  this  point  rejected  those  whom  he  hath  accepted  and 
so  highly  blessed  in  others.  I  have  the  consolation  of 
knowing  that  I  herein  agree  with  a  noble  company  of 
Bishops  and  other  ministers,  whose  labors  in  the  gos- 
pel, and  whose  zealous  attachment  to  the  Church,  I  fol- 
low at  a  distance." 

As  an  evidence  of  the  enthusiasm  of  Bishop 
Meade's  character,  he  states  that  when  he  read  a  work 
of  Soame  Jenyns  on  the  "Atonement,"  he  was  so 
penetrated  with  the  truth  that  Christ  was  indeed  the 
sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  that  he  rose  from 
his  bed  several  times  during  the  perusal,  that  he  might 
praise  God  for  enabling  the  author  to  testify  so  clearly 
and  powerfully  to  so  important  a  truth — the  corner- 
stone of  the  Christian  system.* 

*  Before  we  leave  the  subject  of  "the  Bishops  of  Virginia,"  of 
whom  perhaps  strangers  might  say  we  have  already  said  too  much,  we 
must  testify  to  the  matchless  lightning-like  eloquence  of  Bishop  Johns, 
It  electrified  his  hearers. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  467 


CHAPTER    LXVI. 

HOBART,   GRISWOLD,   EASTBURN,   CHASE. 

Bishop  Hobart  was  the  great  energizing  spirit  that 
infused  Hfe  and  activity  into  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  State  of  New  York.  He  was  the  head  of  the 
High  Church  party,  but  full  of  zeal  for  his  Master's 
service.  Bishop  Hobart  was  specially  active  in  founding 
a  theological  seminary  in  New  York  City.j  The  result  ot 
his  efforts  is  the  General  Theological  Seminary. 
About  the  same  time  that  Dr.  Hobart  was  made  bishop 
of  New  York,  Alexander  Viets  Griswold  was  made 
bishop  of  what  was  then  called  the  Eastern  diocese, 
consisting  of  the  States  of  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont.  They*  were 
consecrated  by  Bishop  White,  of  Pennsylvania,  assisted 
by  the  bishops  of  New  York  and  Connecticut.  Mr. 
Griswold  had  labored  as  deacon  and  presbyter  in  three 
parishes  in  Massachusetts.  Besides  his  clerical  labors, 
in  order  to  eke  out  a  support  for  a  large  family,  he  was' 
compelled  to  devote  portions  of  his  time  to  teaching 
and  farming.  "No  ten  years  of  my  life,"  he  said, 
"have  been  happier  than  the  time  passed  in  those 
three  parishes." 

In  1836  Griswold  became  the  presiding  bishop. 
The  last  act  of  Mr.  Griswold  was  the  consecration  of 
Mr.    Eastburn.      Mr.    Griswold   was  what  is  termed  a 


*  Hobart  and  Griswold. 


468  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

moderate  churchman.  He  wrote  *  some  valuable  ser- 
mons. Bishop  Griswold  was  the  father-in-law  of  the 
distinguished  Dr.  Stephen  Tyng,  and  the  grandfather 
of  Rev.  Dudley  A.  Tyng  and  Stephen  Tyng,  Jun.,  so 
conspicuous  for  religious  zeal  and  ability. 

Philander  Chase  was  the  pioneer  bishop  of  the 
West.  He  was  a  native  of  New  Hampshire,  and  a 
Congregationalist  in  his  religious  views.  After  exam- 
ining a  prayer-book  with  great  care,  he  was  led  to  the 
conviction  that  he  ought  to  enter  the  ministry  of  "  the 
Church  of  the  Book."  He  was  ordained  in  St.  George's 
Church,  New  York,  in  May,  1798.  For  some  years 
he  devoted  himself  to  missionary  labors  in  Western 
New  York,  He  afterwards  went  South  for  his  wife's 
health.  While  there  he  organized  a  church  in  New 
Orleans. 

Mr.  Chase  came  to  Ohio  in  18 17.  A  diocese  hav- 
ing been  formed  in  Ohio,  he  was  elected  its  bishop, 
and  was  consecrated  in  St.  James'  Church,  Philadel- 
phia, February  11,  18 19.  He  now  formed  a  design  of 
founding  a  college  and  theological  seminary  in  Ohio. 
With  energetic  perseverance  he  carried  out  his  plan, 
though  through  much  opposition  and  difficulty.  He 
Went  to  England  in  1823,  where  he  collected  1^30,000. 
He  purchased  8,000  acres,  giving  he  names  of  this 
benefactors,  Lord  Kenyon  to  the  college,  and  Gambler 
to  the  site  on  which  a  village  is  built.  Some  troubles 
arising  between  the  bishop  and  his  clergy — some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  the  disposition  of  funds — he  re- 
signed his  jurisdiction  in  Ohio  as  bishop,  and  his  ad- 
ministration of  the  affairs  of  the  university  in  1831. 
The  General  Convention  gave  their  assent  to  this  step. 

•  Published. 


ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH   OF  CHRIST.  469 

He  was  elected  bishop  of  Illinois  in  1835.  Again  he 
went  to  England  in  behalf  of  the  education  of  the 
West,  and  collected  money  enough  to  enable  hinn  to 
found  another  institution  of  learning,  which  he  called  . 
Jubilee  College,  in  Peoria  county,  111.  This  college 
was  opened  in  1847.  Bishop  Chase  spent  the  remain- 
der of  his  life  in  Illinois. 

As  we  have  merely  intended,  in  these  Annals,  to 
sketch  the  outlines  of  work  and  character  of  those 
bishops  who  laid  the  foundations  of  our  church  broadly 
and  deeply  in  our  beloved  country,  our  task  is  almost 
done.  We  well  remember  the  consecration  of  a  bishop 
for  Louisiana  in  1838.  It  took  place  in  Cincinnati. 
The  service  had  commenced  when  we  entered.  The 
sweet  and  singularly  sonorous  voice  of  Meade,  and  the 
earnest  impressive  tones  of  Bishop  Smith  were  heard 
above  the  rest.  The  refined  and  still  youthful  form  of 
Leonidas  Polk  was  the  very  symbol  of  purity.  Bishop 
Mcllvaine  grandly  preached  the  consecration  sermon. 
The  bishop-elect  had  been  one  of  his  converts,  when 
Mcllvaine  was  chaplain  at  West  Point.  We  remem- 
ber he  said,  ' '  The  church  delights  to  call  her  servants 
from  the  most  humble  positions  to  fill  the  highest 
places  in  her  gift."  He  said  this  in  relation  to  the 
post  Mr.  Polk  occupied  when  elected  to  the  Episcopate. 
Mr.  Polk  was  a  young  man  of  large  wealth.  After  be- 
ing in  the  ministry  for  a  few  years  he  went  to  Europe. 
On  his  return,  finding  himself  without  a  parish,  he 
went  to  Tennessee,  his  native  State,  where  he  had  a 
large  church  erected  *  for  the  especial  use  of  the  colored 
people.  He  was  the  pastor  of  a  congregation  of 
negroes   when    called  to  take  a  bishop's  place.     The 

*  At  his  own  expense. 


470  ANNALS   OF   THE   CHURCH    OF   CHRIST. 

sequel  to  his  history  is  very  sad.  When  the  civil  war 
commenced,  as  he  had  had  a  military  education,  he 
believed  it  to  be  his  duty  to  lay  aside  his  sacred  robes 
'  and  take  up  the  sword.  Fatal  mistake !  He  soon 
perished,  and  his  beautiful  life  was  quenched  in  blood. 

We  can  not  dismiss  this  subject  of  the  early  bishops 
without  speaking  of  Bishop  Payne,  who  devoted  the 
best  years  of  his  life  to  the  most  uninteresting  of  all 
mission  fields,  at  least  in  a  worldly  point  of  view,  the 
western  shore  of  Africa.  But  in  another  aspect,  ex- 
clusive of  the  claim  that  all  souls  have  upon  the  Chris- 
tian heart,  the  long  service  of  her  children  in  this 
country,  ought  to  invoke  a  peculiar  and  strong  interest. 
We  make  our  extracts,  with  regard  to  Mr.  Payne,  from 
a  letter  written  by  himself  to  an  old  college  friend,  in 
1874,  a  short  period  before  his  death,  from  his  old 
home  in  Westmoreland  county,  Va. 

"As  we  have  never  met,"  says  Mr.  Payne,  to  his 
correspondent,  ' '  since  our  separation  at  college,  forty- 
one  years  ago,  I  will  briefly  relate  my  subsequent  his- 
tory. Leaving  Williamsburg  in  1833,  thinking  myself 
called  to  the  ministry,  I  entered  the  theological  semi- 
nary nearly  Alexandria.  After  three  years'  residence 
there  I  was  ordained.  Believing  that  as  a  good  soldier 
I  should  go  where  my  services  were  most  needed,  I 
sought  what  1  believed  to  be  the  most  needy  portion  of 
the  missionary  field.  In  the  spring  of  1837  I  sailed  for 
Cape  Palmas  latitude  4°  north  in  West  Africa.  I  ex- 
pected to  live  there  about  ten  years.  I  remained  thirty- 
three  !  After  being  in  Africa  fifteen  years  I  was  elected  by 
the  General  Convention  missionary  bishop  of  Cape  Pal- 
mas and  the  parts  adjacent.  Beginning  at  Cape  Palmas 
with  eight  communicants,  I,   with  other  missionaries, 


ANNALS   OF   THE   CHURCH    OF   CHRIST.  47 1 

gathered  six  hundred.  I  ordained  about  a  dozen  col- 
ored ministers.  In  1869,  my  health  so  entirely  failed 
that  I  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1871  re- 
signed my  position.  I  am  now  living  in  my  native 
county,  Westmoreland,  having  in  it  Wakefield,  the 
birthplace  of  the  Father  of  his  country.  The  parish 
Washington  being  vacant,  I  was  invited  to  take  charge 
of  it.  My  wife,  her  sister,  a  nephew  and  niece  consti- 
tute my  family.  I  have  a  comfortable  home  in  the 
upper  part  of  this  county.  I  have  named  my  home 
'Cavalla,'  after  the  home  in  which  I  passed  thirty 
happy  years  in  Africa.  Will  you  believe  it?"  Oct. 
19,  1874. 

One  more  little  incident  with  regard  to  Bishop  John 
Payne.  He  was  frequently  invited  to  preach  after  his 
return  to  his  native  county.  On  one  occasion,  when 
he  was  preaching  at  Yeocomico  church,  a  gentleman, 
advanced  in  years,  approached  the  chancel  to  par- 
take of  the  Lord's  Supper  for  the  first  time.  This* 
gentleman  was  a  man  of  exemplary  Christian  morals, 
and  had  much  influence  in  his  neighborhood.  He  had 
resisted  until  now  the  most  eloquent  appeals  to  partake 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  congregation  were  stilled 
by  deep  emotion  when  this  beloved,  honored  man,  so 
long  known  by  them  all,  approached  the  chancel.  This 
earnest  old  man  from  Africa  could  now  add  another 
leaf  to  the  chaplet  of  immortelles  he  had  gathered  in 
the  far-off  land.  There  are  many  honored  names  in 
the  episcopate,  and  also  among  our  presbyters  (some 
noble  presbyters  of  blessed  memory)  that  our  limits 
will  not  permit  us  to  mention,  north  and  south,  east 
and  west.     We  have  heard  sermons  from  Presbyterians, 


Hon.  Willoughby  Newton,  of  Westmoreland  county. 


4/2  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Methodists  and  Baptists  that  made  our  hearts  to  glow 
with  thankfulness  that  God  had  raised  up  such  wit- 
nesses to  his  truth. 

We  remember  laymen  of  different  ecclesiastical 
names  who  did  much  to  recommend  religion  by  their 
excellent  conduct  to  all  around  them.  Especially  does 
memory  dwell*  on  one  beloved  and  exemplary  lay- 
man, f  who,  for  a  series  of  years  kept  alive  the 
flame  of  devotion  among  his  neighbors  (when  no 
clergyman  was  at  hand)  by  reading  to  them,  in  a  "for- 
est sanctuary,"  the  prayers  of  the  church  and  very 
admirable  sermons.  The  missionary  bishops  of  the 
Northwest  have  our  most  cordial  sympathy.  At  the 
close  of  the  civil  war,  the  conciliation  of  Bishop  Hop- 
kins, of  Vermont,  must  not  be  forgotten.  He  wrote 
brotherly  Christian  letters  to  Bishop  Atkinson  and 
other  Southern  Bishops.  So  potent  is  Christian  love, 
that  not  a  scar  remains  of  the  wounds  made  by  differ- 
ing political  or  sectional  sentiment.  Differing  religious 
opinions,  however,  have  presented  some  phases  more 
difficult  to  treat. 

About  the  year  1833,  there  was  a  movement  at  Ox- 
ford, England,  called  the  Tractarian  movement.  Drs. 
Pusey  and  Newman,  and  others  well  known  in  England, 
began  to  publish  a  series  of  tracts  connected  with  the 
faith  and  practice  of  the  Church.  These  tractarians 
labored  in  their  writings  to  bring  the  Church,  as  they 
said,  more  in  accordance  with  the  usages  of  the  primi- 
tive ages  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  leaders  of  this 
movement  lost  their  positions  in  the  University  of  Ox- 


*  Memorice  prodere. 
*  Col.  Edward  Colston,  of  Berkeley  county,  in  the  Valley  of  Vir- 
ginia. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  473 

ford.  Dr.  Pusey  continues  in  the  communion  of  the 
English  Church,  but  Npwman,  Manning  and  many 
others  entered  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  Ritualistic 
movement,  both  in  England  and  America,  is  the  result 
of  "Tractarianism."  The  Ritualists  allege  that  they 
wish  only  to  give  impressiveness  and  beauty  to  the 
service  by  the  introduction  of  more  music  and  richer 
dresses.  But  it  is  believed  that  they  symbolize  in  some 
of  their  innovations  doctrines  that  are  opposed  to  the 
standards  of  Protestantism  and  of  the  Episcopal 
Church.  Some  of  the  Ritualists  believe  that  our  pres- 
byters are  real  priests,  in  the  Jewish  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic sense,  and  that  when  they  offer  the  consecrated 
bread  and  wine,  they  offer  real  sacrifice.  This  view 
seems  to  Protestants  to  contradict  our  reason  and  com- 
mon sense,  as  well  as  the  plain,  clear  words  of  Script- 
ure. The  literal  words  of  our  Lord,  but  still  more, 
the  voice  of  priestly  authority,  induced  many  faithfnl 
souls  to  receive  this  view ;  yet  all  down  the  ages  there 
have  been  voices  lifted  up  in  revolt  against  it.  The 
delicate  lines  of  distinction  drawn  by  the  Ritualists, 
between  their  views  and  the  Romanists'  view,  are  not 
easily  grasped. 


474  ANNALS   OF   THE   CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 

An  adverse  circumstance  in  the  history  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church  is  to  be  found  in  the  defection  of  Bishop 
Cummins.  He  was  the  assistant  bishop  in  the  diocese 
of  Kentucky.  Mr.  Cummins  was  a  preacher  of  re- 
markable eloquence,  of  pure  morals  and  holy  conduct. 
He  became  dissatisfied  with  some  expressions  in  the 
prayer-book,  connected  with  the  baptismal  service. 
Mr.  Cummins  became  a  schismatic  and  founded  an- 
other church,  which  he  called  the  Reformed  Episcopal. 
This  church  retains  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  with 
few  alterations. 

Dr.  Muhlenburg  once  proposed,  we  believe,  to  our 
General  Convention  to  permit  some  alternating  words 
in  the  baptismal  service.  Had  the  suggestions  of  this 
godly,  liberal  man  been  heeded,  this  schism  perhaps 
might  have  been  avoided.  No  church  is  infallible. 
There  have  been  transient  divisions  in  this  country  in 
nearly  all  the  Protestant  bodies.  The  Presbyterians, 
who,  by  their  uncompromising  principles  for  what  they 
deem  right,  and  by  their  pulpit  ability,  have  drawn  so 
many  of  the  most  intelligent  classes  into  their  churches, 
especially  in  Kentucky,  separated  forty  years  ago  into 
what  was  called  Old  and  New  School.  These  differ- 
ences were  doctrinal.  The  breach  is  now  healed  and 
they  commune  together.  The  Methodists,  too,  have 
had  their  divisions.  During  the  civil  war  they  were 
divided  into  Northern  and  Southern  Methodists.  Their 
differences  were  political  or  sectional.     The  Methodists, 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST.  *  475 

through  their  zeal  and  wise  church  government,  are 
very  numerous.  The  writer  of  these  lines  remembers 
the  thrilling  eloquence  of  some  of  their  preachers  in 
the  early  days.  The  Baptists  are  very  numerous ; 
they  include  a  large  number  of  differing  sects,  but  all 
agreeing  in  one  point — in  the  mode  of  baptism  and  in 
the  exclusion  of  infants  as  subjects  of  baptism.  The 
sect  of  Baptists  (called  Christians)  who  embrace  the 
tenets  of  the  late  Alexander  Campbell,  are  very  numer- 
ous in  the  West,  particularly  in  the  State  of  Kentucky. 
Some  very  distinguished  men  have  beeii  connected  with 
this  communion. 

In  1792,  when  Kentucky  separated  from  Virginia, 
there  were  some  Episcopalians  among  her  emigrants ; 
but  these  "  few  sheep  in  the  wilderness"  had  no  pastor 
to  gather  them  into  their  once  loved  fold.  Marshall 
says  in  his  History  of  Kentucky,  in  speaking  of  the 
Episcopal  Church:  "This  church  requires  an  educated 
ministry.  Her  form  of  worship  is  highly  decorous, 
and  her  discipline  calculated  to  make  good  citizens." 
This  is  but  a  cold  commentary  on  a  liturgy  bought  by 
the  blood  of  the  martyrs. 

1798  Mr.  Moore  was  admitted  to  Holy  Orders  by 
Bishop  Madison.  He  ministered  to  a  congregation  in 
Lexington,  Ky. ,  and  was  made  President  of  Transyl- 
vania University.  The  first  minister  of  any  name  who 
offered  prayer  and  praise  to  the  living  God  in  Kentucky 
was  the  Rev.  Mr.  Lythe,  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  who 
was  chaplain  to  a  proprietary  legislature.  This  service 
was  held  under  an  elm  tree.  Mr.  Lythe  presented  a 
bill  to  this  legislature:  "To  prevent  Sabbath  breaking 
and  profane  swearing."  This  legislature  met  near  Har- 
rodsburg  in  1795. 


476  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

Yet,  while  Episcopalians,  according  to  the  histo- 
rian, waited  for  educated  men,  the  Baptists,  with  the 
New  Testament  in  their  hands,  ignorant  of  what  the 
Fathers  taught,  drew  multitudes  into  their  connection. 
For  half  a  century  the  Baptists  had  the  chief  control 
in  the  spiritual  vineyard  of  Kentucky.  The  first  Epis- 
copal Council  of  Kentucky  assembled  in  Lexington  in 
1829.  The  parishes  of  Louisville  and  Danville  were  rep- 
resented by  three  clergymen  and  nine  zealous  laymen. 

Bishop  Brownell,  of  Connecticut,  and  Ravenscroft, 
of  North  Carolina,  visited  the  struggling  church  in 
1829,  and  Meade  of  Virginia,  in  1831,  went  through 
the  State  from  Maysville  to  Hopkinsville,  in  the  per- 
formance of  church  work. 

In  1832  Kentucky  claimed  a  bishop  for  herself  B. 
B.  Smith,  the  rector  at  Lexington,  was  elected  bishop 
at  a  Council  in  Hopkinsville.  He  was  consecrated  in 
New  York,  St.  Paul's  Chapel,  October,  1832.  In  the 
summer  of  1833  the  cholera  raged  in  Lexington.  This 
scourge  took  away  two  of  his  presbyters,  three  candi- 
didates  for  Holy  Orders,  'and  fifty  communicants  from 
the  episcopal  diocese.  Bishop  Smith  faced  the  pesti- 
lence with  great  bravery.  His  courage  and  devotion 
to  all  the  people  within  his  reach,  at  this  trying  crisis, 
were  long  remembered.  Bishop  Smith  was  very  active 
in  the  cause  of  education.  He  lectured  in  many  of 
the  little  towns  in  Kentucky  to  arouse  the  people  to 
introduce  common  schools.  We  remember  long  years 
ago  hearing  his  sonorous  voice  lifted  in  behalf  of  com- 
mon schools,  after  he  had  driven  some  miles  through 
cold  and  darkness. 

Louisville  is  the  stronghold  of  episcopacy  in  Ken- 
tucky. This  city  abounds  in  charitable  institutions.  * '  The 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 


477 


John  N.  Norton  Memorial  Infirmary  "  has  been  recently 
reared  with  funds  left  by  this  man  of  blessed  memory, 
whose  praise  is  in  all  the  churches. 

Bishop  T.  U.  Dudley  is  now  the  bishop  of  the  P. 
E.  Church  in  Kentucky.  He  has  made  many  friends 
for  his  church  by  his  eloquent  zeal  in  the  pulpit,  and 
by  his  pen  in  behalf  of  noble  enterprises.  While  we 
believe  in  the  sins  of  heresy  and  schism,  yet  it  behooves 
all  Christians  to  remember  what  our  Lord  said  to  his 
disciples  when  they  complained  that  certain  persons 
performed  miracles  in  Jesus'  name,  still  'Cd^y  follow  not 
with  us,  and  we  forbade  them.  The  Master  said  to 
them,  "Forbid  them  not,  for  they  who  are  not  against 
us  are  on  our  part."  In  these  words  our  Lord  forbids 
compulsory  measures  for  opinions'  sake  and  casts  a  de- 
fense around  liberty  of  heart  and  conscience.  All 
bodies  of  Christians,  with  their  leaders,  who  seek  in 
Christ's  name -to  cast  out  the  demons  of  selfishness,  dis- 
honesty, impurity,  intemperance  and  all  rice  to  such 
the  hand  of  Christian  fellowship  should  be  extended. 
They  may  not  follow  with  us,  but  we  must  rejoice  in 
the  work  of  all  who  earnestly  seek  to  elevate  hu- 
manity. 

Though  the  Episcopal  Church  has  extended  widely 
and  prospered  well  in  this  nineteenth  century,  yet  it  is 
still  a  little  flock  in  our  country  when  compared  with 
the  Methodists,  Baptists,  Romanists  and  Presbyterians, 
England,  as  a  great  commercial  nation,  has  become  the 
agent  of  extended  missionary  operations.  She  has  carried 
Christianity,  and  with  it  the  Anglican  PIpiscopal  Church, 
to  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe.  She  has  sent  her  mis- 
sionary bishops  to  India,  Africa,  Australia  and  to  her 
possessions  in  North  America ;  even  to  New  Zealand, 


4/8  ANNALS   OF   THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

SO  lately  known  to  civilization.  The  English  Episco- 
pate was  introduced  by  Bishop  Selwyn  into  New  Zeal- 
and. 

"The  churches  of  the  United  States,"  says  Dr. 
Schaff,  "send  more  men  and  money  for  the  conversion 
of  the  heathen  than  any  other  nation,  except  the  Eng- 
lish." These  two  branches  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race, 
as  they  have  control  over  the  seas  and  commercial  in- 
tercourse of  the  world,  are  evidently  intended  by  Prov- 
idence to  propagate  Bible  Christianity  to  the  end  of 
the  earth.  Of  the  immense  sum  sent  last  year  by  the 
American  Missionary  Society,  the  Presbyterians  sent 
one-fourth. 

There  is  at  Rome  a  great  college  called  the  Propa- 
ganda, where  every  language  of  the  world  is  taught, 
to  qualify  missionaries  for  their  work.  The  Roman 
Church,  with  its  seeming  uniformity,  embraces  a  great 
variety  of  sentiment  and  discipline  in  her  monastic  or- 
ders. In  the  many  denominations  of  Christendom 
there  is  much  seeming  division,  yet  there  are  really 
many  points  of  agreement.  In  the  Greek,  Roman, 
Anglican  and  in  the  American  Episcopal  Church,  the 
same  Creeds  are  used — the  Apostles'  Creed  and  the 
Nicene  Creed  "  They  are  agreed  in  the  ministry  of 
three  orders ;  also  in  the  use  of  a  liturgy. 

Protestant  churches  agree  substantially  in  points  of 
doctrine  with  each  other.  This  is  proved  in  the  work 
now  carried  on,  with  great  harmony,  since  1870.  We 
mean  the  revision  of  our  P^nglish  Bible.  "This  revis- 
ion," says  Dr.  Schaff,  "will  be  a  monument  of  the  spir- 
itual unity  and  exegetical  consensus  of  English-speak- 
ing Christendom."  The  largest  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ments in  the   world  are   those   of  the  Greek   Church. 


ANNALS   OF  THE   CHURCH    OF   CHRIST.  479 

There  are  said  to  be  sixty-five  millions  of  members  in 
the  East.  The  Patriarchs,  of  Constantinople,  Antioch, 
Alexandria,  Moscow,  rule  over  many  Dioceses  and 
Bishops.  This  Church  is  not  represented  in  this.  eoUri-- 
try. 

The  Greek  Church  objects  to  one  clause  in  the 
Nicene  Creed — the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from 
the  Son.  There  are  three  strange  races  in  our  land. 
These  are  not  the  descendants  of  Japheth.  The  negroes, 
the  Indians  and  the  Chinese  have  presented  difficult 
problems,  not  only  to  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  but  to  the  Church.  Who  could  have  foreseen  that 
the  wicked  slave  trade,  which  brought  to  these  shores, 
and  to  the  Islands,  so  many  thousands  of  Africans 
would  ever  exemplify  the  paradox  of  the  Psalmist, 
"The  wrath  of  man  shall  praise  thee."  Enslaved 
millions  have  been  civilized  and  Christianized,  who 
would  not  have  been  reached  in  their  own  country. 

This  is  no  defense  for  slavery.  No,  no  !  but  it  is  a 
side  of  the  diagram  that  ought  not  to  be  overlooked. 
It  proves  that  God,  who  sees  the  end  from  the  begin- 
ning, can  overrule  the  sin  and  cupidity  of  one  race 
to  the  benefit  of  another.  The  civilization  and  Chris- 
tianity of  these  poor  people  may  be  very  imperfect, 
but  is  far,  very  far,  above  the  degrading  heathenism  of 
their  ancestors. 

For  a  long  course  of  years  missionaries  have  been 
sent  to  China ;  the  Jesuits  have  been  particularly  active 
in  this  field.  Since  the  opening  of  the  ports  many 
years  since,  missionaries  from  every  Protestant  Church 
have  found  a  place  in  that  vast  empire.  Missions  have 
been  established  in  Japan  with  much  success.  Now  a 
door  is  opened  wide  for  Christianizing  the  Chinese  within 


480  ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF    CHRIST. 

our  own  borders.  How  wonderful  are  the  ways  of 
God  1  Let  the  earth  rejoice !  The  Lord  reigneth  ! 
May  our  people  professing  to  be  Christian  improve  the 
opportunities  thus  presented.  May  no  narrow,  na- 
tional policy  hinder  the  good  work  ;  but,  alas,  race  preju- 
dice is  an  obstacle  hard  to  surmount. 

"Spiritual  light,"  says  Bishop  Lee,  "is  dawning 
upon  Mexico.  Within  ten  or  twelve  years  a  Reformad 
Church,  called  the  'Church  of  Jesus,'  has  been  opened 
in  the  city  of  Mexico."  This  movement  claims  sym- 
pathy from  all  who  love  pure  primitive  Christianity. 
This  church  in  Mexico  *  has  received  Episcopal  orders 
from  our  Protestant  Episcopal  Bishops. 

Note  on  Japan. — A  late  writer,  an  Englishwoman,  gi%'es  us  some 
facts  as  to  the  work  of  Christian  missionaries  in  Japan.  She  speaks  of 
the  intelligent  zeal  of  the  C.  M.  S. ;  also  of  American  missionaries. 
The  mission  stations  of  Osaka,  Hioga  and  Sunrla  have  all  been  opened 
by  direct  medical  missionary  effort.  The  writer  complains  of  the  small 
mission  force  sent  to  Japan.  "Did  our  Father,"  she  asks,  "make  the 
salvation  of  millions  depend  upon  a  church  selfish,  tardy  and  niggard  in 
men  and  money  ?  "  Will  we  not  be  excused  in  giving  a  sketch  of  a  Japan- 
ese convert  ?  "  Neesima,  an  intelligent  Japanese,  educated  as  a  Sun  Wor- 
shiper, saw  at  Tokio  some  Christian  tracts  in  the  Chinese  tongue.  He  read 
them  with  interest,  and  at  once  received  the  belief  of  a  Creator  who  had 
claims  upon  all  his  creatures.  He  had  a  strong  sense  of  filial  duty, 
but  he  now  felt  that  the  Christians'  God  required  him  to  leave  his  par" 
ents  and  country.  He  went  to  Yedo,  and  went  on  board  of  a  ship, 
hoping  to  learn  from  the  American  captain  more  of  the  new  religion. 
The  trade  of  Neesima  was  shipbuilding.  He  soon  found  that  the  cap- 
tain knew  little  of  religion.  He,  however,  set  out  with  him  for  Bos- 
ton, studying  English  in  the  New  Testament  on  his  way  thither.  He 
was  associated  with  Christians,  in  whom  Christianity  was  a  life  as  well 
as  a  creed.  He  gave  up  his  trade  and  determined  to  devote  himself  to 
his  countrymen,  in  teaching  them  the  truths  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  studied  both  at  Andover  and  Amherst,  and  is  now  striving  to  ele- 
vate his  Japanese  countrymen." 

*  Since  these  lines  were  written  about  Mexico,  some  adverse  cir 
cumstances  have  shadowed  the  advance  of  the  "Church  of  Jesus"  in 
Mexico. 


ANNALS    OF    THE    CHURCH    OF   CHRIST.  48 1 

Lo,  the  poor  Indian  !  It  is  frequently  said  that  the 
Indian  race,  the  original  lords  of  our  wide  domain, 
are  fast  dying  out.  It  is  said  in  some  late  reports  that 
the  number  of  Indians  (exclusive  of  Alaska)  in  the 
United  States  is  but  251,000. 

There  was  much  interest  manifested  in  the  early 
settlement  of  this  country  by  the  English  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Indians,  but  this  strange  people,  through 
all  their  tribes,  seem  to  have  been  singularly  inaccessi- 
ble to  changes  in  their  condition.  From  the  little  log 
church  at  Jamestown,  Va. ,  where  the  baptism  of  Poca- 
hontas, 275  years  ago,  was  performed  by  the  Rev.  Mr, 
Whitaker,  to  the  present  time,  the  number  of  converts 
might  almost  be  counted,  so  small  'has  been  the  rem- 
nant embraced  in  the  Christian  fold.  We  suppose  that 
Bishop  Whipple,  within  a  few  years  past,  has  done 
more  for  this  people  in  these  States  than  any  other  in- 
dividual since  the  days  of  John  Elliott.  Archdeacon 
Kirby  has  ministered  to  the  Indians  for  twenty-nine 
years  past  in  British  North  America.  He  supposes 
there  are  10,000  Christians  in  that  desolate  land.  We 
must  not  forget,  in  this  summary,  the  efforts  made  by 
French  Roman  Catholics  to  Christianize  the  Indians. 

After  the  settlement  of  Canada  by  the  l^rench,  mis- 
sionary stations  were  established  among  different  tribes 
by  devoted,  earnest  men.  Before  the  Pilgrims  anchored 
at  Cape  Cod,  Jesuit  priests  had  penetrated  in  Eastern 
Maine.  Marquette,  Joliet  and  La  Salle  had  erected 
the  cross  on  the  great  rivers  of  the  West.  Commercial 
enterprise  was  connected  with  these  missions ;  but  of 
the  noble  Champlain  it  is  said  that  he  esteemed  the  sav- 
ing of  a  soul  more  than  the  conquest  of  an  empire. 
The  Christianity  of  the  Indians  in  Canada,  and  also  in 


482      ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST. 

Mexico  is,  we  presume,  the  result  of  the  early  French 
and  Spanish  missions.  It  is  mixed  with  much  igno- 
rance and  superstition,  but  we  can  safely  trust  these 
wandering  children,  if  they  live  up  to  the  light  they 
have,  to  the  Great  Spirit  who  will  have  compassion  upon 
them  in  the  days  of  their  ignorance.  The  light  of 
Christianity,  as  we  have  seen,  has  fitfully  gleamed  on 
the  path  of  the  red  man  at  different  periods.  Their 
savagery,  however,  when  let  alone  by  Christianity  or 
civilization,  is  terrible.  Dr.  Whately  says  there  is  no 
instance  of  a  self-raised  nation  from  savage  life.  Is 
not  this  fact  an  argument  for  the  primeval  civilization 
of  man?  Sin  degraded  man  to  savagery.  Mighty 
efforts  are  now  being  made  to  convert  the  nations. 

"Many,"  says  the  language  of  prophecy,  "shall 
run  to  and  fro,  and  knowledge  shall  be  increased." 
But  amid  much  hope  there  are  some  substantial  fears. 
One  writer  tells  us  that  from  the  great  influx  of 
Roman  Catholics  in  this  land,  they  must  ultimately 
triumph,  whereby  civil  and  religious  liberty  will  be 
endangered,  if  not  destroyed.  So  far  as  civil  liberty 
is  concerned,  we  believe  Roman  Catholics  appreciate 
political  rights  as  much  as  Protestants.  The  Roman 
Church  teaches  many  errors,  mixed  up  with  the  truth  ; 
but  we  trust  there  are  many  within  her  fold  who  look 
above  and  beyond  the  vanities  connected  with  her 
worship  "to  the  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin 
of  the  world." 

The  church  of  Xavier  and  Fenelon  must  contain 
good  Christiatis,  though  some  of  her  Popes,  deeming 
themselves  infallible,  have  added  to  her  faith  doctrines 
not  taught  in  the  Scriptures  and  unknown  in  the  purer 
and  earlier    ages    of    the    Church.      Far   more    to   be 


ANNALS  OF  THE   CHURCH    OF   CHRIST.  483 

dreaded  than  Romanism  is  the  spirit  of  skepticism,  that 
Would  question  and  explai^n  away  all  the  mysteries  that 
our  finite  minds  can  not  fully  comprehend.  Some  fore- 
tell the  approach  of  an  age  of  unbelief.  They  inquire, 
are  not  points  of  doctrinal  faith  yielded  now  that  were 
once  held  dear?  To -this  position  it  may  be  replied 
that  Biblical  criticism  is  much  better  understood  in  the 
nineteenth  century  than  in  the  sixteentK  century.  Some 
of  the  leaders  that  dominated  religious  thought  in  the 
early  part  of  the  Reformation,  especially  Calvin,  who 
systematized  and  attempted  to  fit  in  the  doctrines  of 
the  Bible  to 'suit  a  preconceived  system.  Calvin  was  a 
grand  logician  and  metaphysician,  but,  like  the  great 
Augustine  in  the  fourth  century,  his  theory  seemed,  to 
common  minds,  to  sacrifice  God's  mercy  or  love  to 
his  sovereignty.  The  Christian  of  to-day  thinks  more 
for  himself,  and  humbly  trusts  to  his  private  judgment 
in  studying  the  sacred  oracles.  He  knows  that  all  men 
are  finite.  He  is  willing  to  leave  these  hard  questions  to 
God,  knowing  that  He  alone  is  the  great  Artist  and 
Metaphysician  who  can  reconcile  and  solve  the  prob- 
lems of  God's  sovereignty  and  man's  free  will.  "  Canst 
thou,  by  searchmg,  find  out  God?"  cries  the  Patriarch. 
"Canst  thou  find  out  the  Almighty  to  perfection?" 
The  scientist  may  explore  at  will  the  secrets  of  the 
material  univeise,  bul  he  can  not  explain  the  spiritual 
side  of  man's  nature. 

We  know  that  our  Father  in  heaven  is  a  God  of 
Love,  and  that  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  all  bless- 
ings that  are  promised  will  be  freely  vouchsafed  to  those 
"who  do  justly  love  mercy  and  walk  humbly  with 
their  God."  From  the  time  that  our  Lord  said  to  his 
disciples  on  the  mount,  "Ye  are  my  witnesses  to  the 


484  ANNALS  OF  THE  CHURCH    OF   CHRIST. 

uttermost  parts  of  the  earth ;  go  teach  all  nations, 
baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son  and 
Holy  Ghost,"  this  work  has  gone  forward.  For  three 
centuries  it  was  a  grand  and  glorious  light  to  the  na- 
tions of  the  world. 

In  the  days  of  Constantine  there  was  a  partial 
eclipse  of  this  glory.  This  was  caused  by  "the  friend- 
ship of  the  world,"  Desolating  wars  and  the  inroads 
of  savage  hordes,  threatened  civilization  and  Christian- 
ity with  extinction.  But  this  could  not  be.  The 
promise  of  our  Lord  could  not  fail.  The  Church 
breasted  the  waves  of  the  turbid  waters',  and  now  it 
securely  rests  upon  the  Rock  of  Ages.  The  earth 
shall  be  filled  with  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord,  as  the 
waters  cover  the  sea. 

"  Let  all  the  saints  terrestial  sing 
With  those  to  glory  gone, 
For  all  the  servants  of  our  King 
In  earth  and  heaven  are  one." 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Aramaic,  or  Syriac  Language,  57. 

African  Martyrdoms. 

Arius,  113.     Nicene  Council,  107,  108. 

Alexander  Seyerus,  84,  85. 

Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  137,  138,  139. 

Alexander  VI.  (Borgia),  268. 

Augustine,  St  ,  Bishop  of  Hippo  in  Af- 
rica, 146,  148 

Arianism  Settled  by  Theodosius,  A.  D. 
380,  163. 

Augustin,  Missionary  to  the  Saxons  in 
England,  175,  176. 

Anselm  of  Canterbury,  216.  Ammianus, 
119. 

Apocalypse,  63.  Andalusia,  183.  Apos- 
tles, 56. 

Avignon,  captivity  of  Boniface  VIII., 
283.     Alcuin,  180. 

Abbeys  of  the  Middle  Ages,  157,  158. 
Athana.sius,  116. 

Anthony,  153.  Aiban,  British  Martyr, 
97.     Abelard,  217. 

Articles  of  Lambeth,  403.     Armenia,  96. 

Alexandria,  57.  Antioch,  30,  31,  57. 
Adrian,  Emperor,  64,  68. 

Adrian's  Dying  Words,  69.  (Note)  Ala- 
ric,  150.     Agrippa,  28-95,  449. 

Atterbury,  436.  Asbury,  450.  Abbott, 
419.     Aurelius,  71.     Aurelian,  79. 

Aquinas,  280.  Alhambra,  283.  Albi- 
genses,  loi. 

Bernard,  St.,  217.  His  hymn,  218.  Beren- 
garius,  260  (note). 

Bancroft,  410.  Beranger.  Baptists,  362. 
Bishops  U.  S.,  456. 

Barret,  403.     What  is  Reprobation  ? 

Bacon,  Francis,  380.  Burleigh,  390.  Bur- 
gundy, 414. 

Beni,  414.  Basis,  133.  Benedict,  160. 
Bcde,  170,  180. 

Bishops  of  Antioch,  91.  Belisarius,  189. 
Bertha,  173.     Britons,  175. 

Boniface,  Missionary  to  the  Germans, 
184.     Boniface  Vin.  (Hope),  248. 

Becket,  239.  Basil,  59,  117  Butler,  450. 
Berkeley,  449.  Bray,  Blair,  were  Com- 
missaries, 4^7. 

Brick  Churches  (built  by  the  Mother 
Church),  448,  450.  Byzantine  Temples, 
180. 

Besa,  356. 

Cyprian,  87.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  118, 
(valuable  historian).  Cyril  of  Alexan- 
dria, (fierce  persecutor). 

Chry.sostom  (the  golden  mouthed),  41, 
67.     Cid,  280.     Caliphs,  284. 

Circus  of  Nero,  48.  Clement,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  62  A.  I).,  102.  Constantine, 
105,  109,  113. 

Constantinople  built  by  Constantine,  no, 
III,  280.  Charlemagne,  182. 
Confessional,     287.       Crusades,     221. 
Council  of  Constance,  266.      Chaucer, 


260.  Cromwell,  Thomas,  330.  Crom- 
well, Oliver,  430.  Corpus  Christi,  249. 
Chivalry,  287.  Christianity  a  Greek 
religion  for  three  centuries,  145.  Chris- 
tianity Latin  from  St.  Augustine's 
time,  148,  149.  City  of  God,  Augus- 
tine's work,  149-156. 

Chillingworth,  "  Take  away  this  perse- 
cution," 431. 

Calvin,  400.  Colet,  282.  Cowper,  460. 
Cranmer,  399.     Cartwright,  331. 

Controversy  on  the  ministry,  331.  Cart- 
wright  and  Whitgrift,  Church  build- 
ings, 71.  Colonization  Society^  463. 
Commissary,  447. 

Corinthus,  52.  Chase,  460.  Mcllvaine, 
successor  to  Chase  in  Ohio,  and  the 
eloquent  Bedell,  and  the  gifted,  devout 
Jaggar,  Bishop  of  Southern  Ohio,  now 
the  Bishop  of  Northern  Ohio — Cum- 
mins, 474. 

Chapter  46th,  Church  in  Ohio  ;  47th. 
Church  in  Kentucky. 

Christianity  (in  Japan),  Chinese,  Indi- 
ans, 480.     Skepticism,  483. 

Civilization  primeval  (according  to 
Whately),  Sin  makes  Savagery,  482. 

Donatists,  102,  104.  Diocletian,  54,  91. 
Dante,  281.  Decretals  false,  181  (ninth 
century).  Death  of  Julian,  130.  Dun- 
stan,  209.   Dominic,  203.   Decius,  85,  89. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  380.    Edict 

of  Milan,  100  A    u.,  376 
Eneas  Sylvius,  278  (afterwards  Pius  II.) 

Ephraim,  117. 
Erasmus,  318,  320      Eusebius,  212.   Eth- 

elbert,  173.     Eucharist,  247. 
Episcepacy   (Milman's   view),    374,    362, 

363.     Erastus,  320. 
Elagatalus,  83.     Elders   at  Ephesus,  52. 

John  F^lliot,  446  (crossed  the  sea  in  1634 

to  teach  the  Indians). 

Felix,  42.     Festus,  43.     Fratricelli,  281. 

St.  P'rancis,  203. 
Funcral.s,    250.     Fabiola,   250.     Fenelon, 

411.     Falkland,  414. 
Frederick    Barbarossa,    205.     Ferdinand 

and  Isabella,  287. 

Gregory    I.,    172,    175.      Gregory    VII., 

(Hildebrand),  198,  211,  212. 
Gregory  X.,  237      Gregory  Nyssa,  117. 

Gregory  Nananzen,  139. 
Gelerius,  95.     Greek  Church,  480.    Gen- 

seric,  169.     Gnostics,  53,  52. 
Gratian,    133.      Gibbon,    101.     Griswold, 

472,  471.     (Jrindal,  389,  (noble  man  !) 
GarrisonfChapel,  448,  was  given  to  the 

English  for  worship  by  the  Dutch  after 

the  treaty  of  Breda. 
Guyon,    Nladame,    411,    418.      Godfrey 

Bouillon,  229.     Gladiators,  114. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


Helena,  mother  of  Constantine,  io8.  Mo- 
niiis  of  Spain,  109,  (presides  at  the 
Council  of  Nice).  Hiiss,  Martyr  of 
Bohemia,  265.     Hooker,  383. 

Howard,  443.  Hymns  of  Ken,  CoWpcr, 
Wesley,  454.  Hymn  of  St.  Bernard, 
aj7. 

Homoousious,  196.  Hypalia  Greek,  163. 
Henry  IV'.,  German  Emperor,  210. 

Henry  II.  of  England,  339.  Hallam, 
967.     Hilda  Abbess,  177. 

Innocent  I  ,  tSa.  Irenaeiis,  Martyr  l?ish- 
op  of  Lyons,  49,  70.  Ignatius,  Martyr 
Bishop  of  Aniioch,  68.  Indians,  4St. 
Inquisition,  286. 

Indulgencies,  296.  Iconoclasm,  188.*  Isa- 
bella, 236.  lona,  177.  Independents,  445. 

Japan,  480.  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  not 
at  the  Nicene  Coup.cil,  109.  James- 
town, 44J,  (three  sood  clergymen  at 
the  settlement  in  1607). 

Jerome  of  Prague,  267.  Jerome,  152, 
(iranslator  of  the  Vulgate)  in  a  cell  at 
Bethlehem. 

Josephus,  28.  Jews,  63.  Justin,  Mar-, 
tyr,  72.     Jansenists,  413. 

Jewel,  383.  James  I.,  vain  and  vacil- 
lating, 408. 

Knox,  375.  Koran,  237.  Knights  Tem- 
plar, 205.  Knights  Teutonic,  206. 
Knights  Malta,  Thomas  4  Kempis,  281. 

Lanfranc,  215.  Leo  I  ,  Pope,  166,  168. 
Leo,  Emperor,  Leo  X.  Pope,  296. 

Luther,  296,  297.  Louis  IX.  (the  good 
king  of  France),  236,  237. 

Louis  XIV.,  419.  Latimer,  343.  Loyo- 
la, 430      St.  Lawrence,  90. 

Laud,  390.  Labarum  (Constantine's), 
99.     Lateras,  243. 

Letter  of  Clement,  Bishop  of  Rome,  62. 
Latin  Church  (lost  its  unity),  279. 
,  Leicester  (opposed  to  the  Church  of 
England,  392.  Grindal's  Letter  to  the 
Queen,  392.  Lombards,  192.  (Charle- 
magne overturns  the  power  of  the 
Lombards  and  makes  Pope  Hadrian 
king,  192)  A.  I).  774. 

Matilda,  216  (niece  of  Edgar  Atheling). 
Monachism,  154.     St.  Martin,   144,  145. 

Monica,  mother  of  St.  Augustine,  146 
Mystics,  281.  St.  Maur,  260  (preserver 
of  literature).  Madison  (Bishop),  460, 
461.  Bishop  .Moore  462  (he  built  up 
the  waste  places).  Meade.  460  461,462. 

Melchiades,  98.  Magnentius,  98.  Moth- 
er of  Churches,  61  (Jerusalem). 

Magyars,  Martin  V  ,  265.  Moravians, 
400. 

Melanchthon,  2p6.  Moors,  28?.  Monks 
(the  word  "  monk  "  first  appears  in  the 
fourth  century),  154. 

Nicholas  V.,  296.  Nero,  48.  Nicholas 
L,  81.    Nestorius,  163.     Nicomedia,  91. 


Nominalists,  244.  Newman,  465.  Nar- 
ses,  169. 

Odoncer,  188.     Omar,  125.     Origen,  80. 

Orders,  1,  2,  3,  60. 
OldcaiStle  or  Lord  Gotham,  360  (martyr). 

Peter  the  Hermit,  234.  St.  Paul,  24, 
St.  Peter,  35. 

Pliny's  Letter  to  Trajan,  66,  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  239. 

Petrarch,  281.  Parker,  380.  Polycarp, 
74,  76.     Parthian  War,  76. 

Pt'lagius,  164.  St  Patrick,  178.  Pepin, 
192.     Ponthinus,  98. 

Port  Royal,  419.  Port  Royal  Authors, 
420.  G.  W.  Peteikin,  462  (note).  Mem- 
oir of  Mrs.  Poge,  by  C.  W.  Andrews, 
463.     Propag.anda,  475.     Prophesyings, 

399- 
Puritan,  391,  390.     Priscillian,  144.     Par- 
liament of  Paris,  Polk,  465,  467.    Payne, 
467,    468.      Pauline,    Petrine,    Apollinc 
parties. 

Quakers,  443,  Fox,  Barclay,  Penn,  lead- 
ers. 

Rome,  62.  Rienzi,  271.  Raymond,  of 
Toulou.se,  272.     Rudolph,  213. 

Radagaisus,  149.  Raikes,  418.  Ritual- 
ism, 470. 

Servetus  (martyr),  370.    Sybilline  Books, 

Silas,  36.     Segismund,  264. 
Savonorola,  268.    Sclaves,  187.     Sermons 

of  Leo  I.,  i68.     Sylvester,  98. 
See   of    Rome,    Stilicho,    150.     Saladin, 

232.     Sherlock,  412. 

Temple  of  Jerusalem,  124.  Teutonic 
Nations,  187.     Theodosius,  142. 

Tenth  Persecution,  75.  Tertullian,  6i, 
58.  Te'zel,  296.  lUus,  50.  Theodo- 
sian  Code,  116. 

Talavera,  293.  Torquemada,  289.  Three 
Questions,  62.  Toplady,  450,  author 
of  the  hymn,  "  Rock  of  Ages."  Tomb 
of  Beckett  (note),  241.  Theories^  of 
the  Visions  of  Constantine,  90.  Tra- 
jan's Persecution,  64.  True  Church, 
129. 

Ulphilas,  135.  Ulphilas  Bible,  136.  Uni- 
versal Bishop,  170.     Usher. 

Valentinian  I.,  131.  Valentinian  II.,  133. 
Valens,  133.  Vatican,  48,  296.  Vale- 
rian, 87. 

Whipple,  476.  Weslevs,  John  and 
Charles,  Whitfield,  456.  460.  Wickliffe, 
263,  255.     Wesselius,  282. 

Ximenes,  236. 

Zenobia,  00.  Ziiinglius,  297.  Ziska,  a 
famous  Bohemian  captain,  275.  Zozi- 
mus,  101. 


D/6 

Hf45 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


